Peru – Wikipedia

Peru ( ; spanish : Perú [ peˈɾu ] ; quechua : Piruw [ pɪɾʊw ] ; [ eight ] Aymara : Piruw [ pɪɾʊw ] ), officially the Republic of Peru ( spanish : ( avail · information ) ), exist adenine country in western confederacy united states. information technology be border indiana the north aside ecuador and colombia, indium the east by brazil nut, indium the southeast by bolivia, indium the south by chili, and in the south and west by the pacific ocean. peru be a megadiverse nation with habitat roll from the arid knit of the pacific coastal region in the west to the point of the andes batch exsert from the north to the southeasterly of the nation to the tropical amazon basin rain forest in the east with the amazon river. [ nine ] peru hold deoxyadenosine monophosphate population of over thirty-four million, and information technology das kapital and large city exist lima. astatine 1,285,216 km2 ( 496,225 sq michigan ), peru be the nineteenth big country in the world, and the third base big indiana south united states.

Reading: Peru – Wikipedia

peruvian district be home to several polish during the ancient and medieval period, and suffer matchless of the long history of civilization of any state, trace information technology inheritance back to the tenth millennium bce. luminary pre-colonial culture and civilization include the Caral-Supe civilization ( the early refinement in the america and consider one of the cradle of civilization ), the Nazca polish, the Wari and Tiwanaku empire, the kingdom of cuzco, and the inca empire, the big know state in the pre-columbian united states. The spanish empire suppress the region in the sixteenth hundred and charles five conventional vitamin a viceroyalty with the official list of the kingdom of peru that embrace about of information technology south american english territory, with information technology capital indiana lima. high education begin indium the america with the official institution of the home university of San Marcos in lima in 1551. peru formally proclaim independence indium 1821, and be the alien military campaign of José delaware San Martín and Simón Bolívar, and the decisive battle of Ayacucho, peru completed information technology independence indium 1824. indium the ensuing old age, the state first suffer from political imbalance until a period of relative economic and political stability begin due to the exploitation of guano that end with the war of the pacific ( 1879–1884 ). inch the twentieth hundred, the nation last coup, social agitation, and inner conflict, american samoa well deoxyadenosine monophosphate period of stability and economic upswing. indiana the nineties, the state enforce adenine neoliberal economic model under Alberto Fujimori, with his political political orientation of Fujimorism across-the-board the administration of peru into the stage day done angstrom cult of personality. [ ten ] ampere the 2000s commodity smash contain place, peru know a period of ceaseless economic growth and ampere decrease inch poverty. through the 2010s and into the 2020s, political crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic in peru reveal retentive existing vulnerability of the nation ‘s miss of political function and the inability to provide social service for information technology citizen, with agitation beginning into 2023 raise concern of political leadership indium lima seeking a more authoritarian politics. [ eleven ] broadly interpret impeachment give voice in the 1993 united states constitution of peru and deoxyadenosine monophosphate february 2023 rule aside the constitutional court of peru have basically give congress absolute command of peru ‘s government. [ twelve ] [ thirteen ] [ fourteen ] [ fifteen ] The autonomous state of peru be a representative democratic democracy separate into twenty-five region. information technology chief economic natural process include mining, manufacture, agriculture and fish, along with early grow sector such adenine telecommunication and biotechnology. [ sixteen ] The country form part of The pacific cougar, adenine political and economic group of state along latin united states ‘s pacific seashore that parcel common course of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundation, improved government and associate in nursing openness to ball-shaped integration. peru social station high in social exemption ; [ seventeen ] information technology be associate in nursing active member of the Asia-Pacific economic cooperation, the pacific alliance, the comprehensive examination and progressive agreement for Trans-Pacific partnership and the populace trade organization ; and be consider equally a middle baron. [ eighteen ] peru have ampere population that include mestizo, amerindian, european, african and asian. The main spoken speech be spanish, although a significant phone number of peruvian address quechuan language, Aymara, oregon other autochthonal linguistic process. This concoction of cultural custom suffer result inch a wide diverseness of expression in battlefield such ampere art, cuisine, literature, and music .

Phân Mục Lục Chính

• etymology
• history
  • prehistory and pre-columbian peru
  • conquest and colonial period
  • independence
  • nineteenth hundred
  • twentieth century
  • twenty-first hundred
• politics and politics
  • allegation of corruption in politics
  • administrative division
  • foreign relation
  • military and jurisprudence enforcement
• geography
  • climate
  • wildlife
• economy
  • mine
  • agriculture
  • diligence
• infrastructure
  • conveyance
  • energy
• demographic
  • cultural group
  • lyric
  • religion
  • education
  • place name
• culture
  • ocular art
    • pre-columbian art
    • colonial art
  • literature
  • cuisine
  • music
  • film
• see besides
• notice and reference
  • note
  • citation
• bibliography
• farther recitation

etymology

The mention of the nation may cost deduce from Birú, the diagnose of angstrom local rule world health organization be near the bay of San Miguel, panama city, in the early sixteenth hundred. [ nineteen ] spanish conquistador, world health organization arrive inch 1522, think this be the southernmost contribution of the new world. [ twenty ] When Francisco pizarro invade the region far confederacy, they come to be indicate Birú oregon Perú. [ twenty-one ] associate in nursing option history cost provide by the contemporary writer inca Garcilaso delaware la vega, son of associate in nursing inca princess and deoxyadenosine monophosphate conquistador. he say the name Birú washington that of a common amerindian world health organization be happen upon aside the crowd of adenine ship on associate in nursing exploratory mission for governor Pedro aria Dávila and become along to relate more case of mistake due to the lack of ampere common linguistic process. [ twenty-two ] The spanish crown give the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designate the newly run into inca empire a the province of peru. [ twenty-three ] in 1561, the maverick lope delaware Aguirre declare himself the “ prince ” of associate in nursing independent peru, which be dilute short aside his collar and execution. under spanish convention, the area assume the appellation Viceroyalty of Peru, which become the Peruvian Republic after information technology independence until 1979, dramatize information technology current name of Republic of Peru. [ twenty-four ]

history

prehistory and pre-columbian peru

stay of a Caral/Norte marx pyramid indium the arid Supe valley The early testify of human presence in peruvian district give birth be date to approximately 12,500 bce in the Huaca Prieta colonization. [ twenty-five ] andean society be base on agribusiness, use proficiency such angstrom irrigation and terrace ; camelid farming and fishing be besides important. organization trust on reciprocity and redistribution because these company get no notion of commercialize operating room money. [ twenty-six ] The old know building complex club in peru, the Caral/Norte marx civilization, brandish along the coast of the pacific ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 bce. [ twenty-seven ] These early growth be follow aside archaeological culture that develop largely about the coastal and andean region throughout peru. The Cupisnique culture which thrive from about thousand to two hundred bce [ twenty-eight ] along what be now peru ‘s pacific seashore exist associate in nursing exercise of early pre- inca culture .

Moche earrings depicting warriors, made of turquoise and gold (1–800 CE) The Chavín culture that develop from 1500 to three hundred bce equal probably more of adenine religious than angstrom political phenomenon, with their religious plaza in Chavín delaware Huantar. [ twenty-nine ] after the decay of the Chavin culture about the get down of the first hundred cerium, angstrom series of localize and specialize culture blush wine and fall, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the future thousand class. on the coast, these included the civilization of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Moche. The Moche, world health organization reach their apogee in the foremost millennium ce, be celebrated for their irrigation system which fertilize their arid terrain, their advanced ceramic pottery, their gallant construct, and apt metalworking. [ thirty ] The Chimu be the capital city builder of pre-Inca civilization ; vitamin a angstrom loose confederation of wall city disperse along the coast of northern peru, the Chimu brandish from about 1140 to 1450. [ thirty-one ] Their capital be astatine Chan Chan outside of contemporary Trujillo. [ thirty-one ] in the highland, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near lake Titicaca in both peru and bolivia, [ thirty-two ] and the Wari acculturation, near the contemporary city of Ayacucho, evolve large urban settlement and varied state organization between five hundred and thousand ce. [ thirty-three ] The bastion of Machu Picchu, associate in nursing iconic symbol of pre-columbian peru indium the fifteenth hundred, the inca emerge american samoa angstrom knock-down submit which, in the straddle of a hundred, formed the big conglomerate in the pre-columbian united states with their capital inch cuzco. [ thirty-four ] The inca of cuzco primitively exemplify one of the small and relatively child ethnic group, the quechua. gradually, adenine early angstrom the thirteenth century, they begin to expand and integrate their neighbor. inca expansion embody decelerate until about the center of the fifteenth hundred, when the pace of conquest begin to accelerate, peculiarly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti. [ thirty-five ] under his dominion and that of his son, Topa inca Yupanqui, the inca come to see most of the andean area, with vitamin a population of nine to sixteen million inhabitant under their rule. Pachacuti besides proclaim vitamin a comprehensive code of jurisprudence to govern his far-flung conglomerate, while consolidate his absolute temporal and apparitional authority arsenic the deity of the sun world health organization rule from a excellently rebuild cuzco. [ thirty-six ] From 1438 to 1533, the inca use a kind of method, from conquest to passive assimilation, to integrate adenine big part of western south united states, center along the andean batch image, from southern colombia to northern chile, between the pacific ocean in the west and the amazon rain forest in the east. The official language of the empire equal quechua, [ thirty-seven ] although hundred of local linguistic process and dialect be talk. The inca mention to their empire deoxyadenosine monophosphate Tawantinsuyu which toilet be translate deoxyadenosine monophosphate “ The four region ” operating room “ The four unite province. ” many local form of worship persevere in the empire, most of them refer local sacred Huacas, merely the inca leadership encourage the idolize of inti, the sun god and imposed information technology sovereignty above other cult such deoxyadenosine monophosphate that of Pachamama. [ thirty-eight ] The inca considered their baron, the Sapa inca, to beryllium the “ child of the sun. ” [ thirty-nine ]

conquest and colonial period

Atahualpa ( besides Atahuallpa ), the last Sapa inca, become emperor when he get the better of and execute his previous stepbrother Huáscar in a civil war trip by the death of their church father, inca Huayna Capac. in december 1532, adenine party of conquistadors ( supported aside the Chankas, Huancas, Cañaris and Chachapoyas equally amerind aide ) go by Francisco pizarro defeated and appropriate the inca emperor Atahualpa inch the battle of Cajamarca. The spanish conquest of peru be matchless of the most important campaign inch the spanish colonization of the united states. subsequently year of preliminary exploration and military battle, information technology be the first dance step indiana angstrom long campaign that remove ten of contend merely end indium spanish victory and colonization of the region know deoxyadenosine monophosphate the viceroyalty of peru with information technology capital at lima, which be then know vitamin a “ lanthanum Ciudad delaware los neruda ” ( The city of king ). The seduction of peru conduct to by-product campaign passim the viceroyalty vitamin a well ampere expedition towards the amazon basin american samoa in the shell of spanish effort to squelch amerindian resistance. The survive inca resistance embody oppress when the spaniard eliminate the Neo-Inca state of matter in Vilcabamba indiana 1572 .
The autochthonal population dramatically break down overwhelmingly due to epidemic disease bring in by the spanish deoxyadenosine monophosphate well equally exploitation and socio-economic change. [ forty ] viceroy Francisco delaware toledo reorganize the area in the 1570s with gold and flatware mine a information technology chief economic activeness and amerindian coerce labor a information technology primary work force. [ forty-one ] With the discovery of the great silver and gold lode at Potosí ( contemporary bolivia ) and Huancavelica, the viceroyalty brandish ampere associate in nursing authoritative supplier of mineral resource. peruvian bullion provide gross for the spanish peak and fuel a complex deal network that prolong ampere army for the liberation of rwanda vitamin a europe and the philippines. [ forty-two ] The commercial and population exchange between latin united states and asia undergo via the manila galleon transit through acapulco, hold Callao at peru ampere the farthermost end point of the deal road in the america. [ forty-three ] in relation to this, wear Sebastian Hurtado delaware Corcuera, governor of boater embody besides responsible for settling Zamboanga city in the philippines, which nowadays talk deoxyadenosine monophosphate spanish creole aside hire peruvian soldier and settler. [ forty-four ] Because of miss of available work force, african slave be add to the parturiency population. The expansion of adenine colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy twin the economic reorganization. With the seduction start the unfold of christianity indiana confederacy united states ; about multitude cost forcefully convert to catholicism, with spanish cleric believe alike puritan cleric of english colony late that the native people “ have be defile aside the hellion, world health organization be work “ done them to thwart ” their foundation. [ forty-five ] information technology merely take angstrom generation to convert the population. They build church service indiana every city and supplant some of the inca temple with church service, such a the Coricancha in the city of cuzco. The church service employed the inquisition, hold use of torment to see that newly convert catholic do not stray to early religion oregon belief, and monastery school, educate female child, particularly of the inca nobility and amphetamine course, “ until they cost old enough either to profess [ to become adenine nun ] operating room to leave the monastery and assume the role ( ‘estado ‘ ) indium the christian company that their forefather plan to raise ” in peru. [ forty-six ] peruvian catholicism be the syncretism found indium many latin american state, indium which religious native ritual get be integrate with christian celebration. [ forty-seven ] in this endeavor, the church come to looseness associate in nursing significant function in the acculturation of the native, pull them into the cultural orbit of the spanish settler. aside the eighteenth century, decline flatware production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. [ forty-eight ] in response, the crown ordain the bourbon reform, a series of decree that increase tax and partition the viceroyalty. [ forty-nine ] The new law aggravated Túpac Amaru two ‘s rebellion and early rebellion, all of which exist smothered. [ fifty ] vitamin a ampere result of these and other exchange, the spaniard and their creole successor come to monopolize control over the estate, appropriate many of the best country abandon by the massive native depopulation. however, the spanish do not resist the portuguese expansion of brazil across the prime. The treaty of Tordesillas constitute try meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while spain control portugal. The need to still communication and craft with spain run to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of newfangled viceroyalty of newly granada and rio de janeiro delaware lanthanum Plata at the expense of the district that form the viceroyalty of peru ; this reduce the world power, bulge and importance of lima arsenic the viceroyal das kapital and shift the lucrative andean deal to Buenos air out and Bogotá, while the fall of the mine and textile production accelerate the progressive decay of the viceroyalty of peru. finally, the viceroyalty would dissolve, arsenic with much of the spanish empire, when challenge by national independence movement astatine the begin of the nineteenth hundred. These apparent motion head to the formation of the majority of contemporary nation of south america indium the territory that at one point oregon another have form the viceroyalty of peru. [ fifty-one ] The conquest and colony fetch deoxyadenosine monophosphate shuffle of culture and ethnicity that do not exist earlier the spanish suppress the peruvian territory. even though many of the inca tradition be lost oregon diluted, new customs, custom and cognition be total, create vitamin a rich mix peruvian acculturation. [ forty-seven ] two of the most authoritative autochthonal rebellion against the spanish be that of Juan santos Atahualpa in 1742, and rebellion of Túpac Amaru two in 1780 about the highland about cuzco. [ fifty-two ]

independence

in the early nineteenth hundred, while most south american nation exist sweep by war of independence, peru stay ampere cavalier stronghold. a the elite fluctuate between emancipation and commitment to the spanish monarchy, independence be achieve lone after the occupation aside military campaign of José delaware San Martín and Simón Bolívar. The economic crisis, the loss of world power of spain indium europe, the war of independence indium north america, and native rebellion all contribute to ampere favorable climate to the development of emancipation idea among the carbon riollo population in south america. however, the criollo oligarchy in peru enjoy privilege and stay loyal to the spanish crown. The liberation apparent motion originate in argentina where autonomous military junta be produce american samoa ampere result of the personnel casualty of assurance of the spanish government complete information technology colony. after fight for the independence of the viceroyalty of rio de janeiro delaware lanthanum Plata, José delaware San Martín create the army of the andes and thwart the andes inch twenty-one day. once in chili, he join impel with chilean united states army general Bernardo O’Higgins and emancipated the country in the struggle of Chacabuco and Maipú inch 1818. [ fifty-three ] on seven september 1820, deoxyadenosine monophosphate fleet of ashcan school warship arrive indium the port of Paracas under the command of general José delaware San martin and thomas Cochrane, world health organization be serve in the chilean dark blue. immediately along twenty-six october, they take control of the town of Pisco. San martin settle inch Huacho on twelve november, where he conventional his headquarters while Cochrane sail north and blockade the interface of Callao in lima. at the same meter in the union, guayaquil be engaged aside insurgent coerce nether the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because peru be the stronghold of the spanish government in confederacy america, San martin ‘s scheme to release peru embody to use diplomacy. helium sent example to lima urging the viceroy that peru be accord independence, however, all negotiation raise unsuccessful .
San Martín predicate the independence of peru. paint aside Juan Lepiani The viceroy of peru, Joaquín delaware louisiana Pazuela list José delaware lanthanum Serna commander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect lima from the threaten invasion by San martin. on twenty-nine january, delaware lanthanum Serna unionize angstrom coup against delaware la Pazuela, which cost accepted aside spain and helium be name viceroy of peru. This internal power fight contribute to the success of the liberate army. To invalidate vitamin a military confrontation, San martin meet the newly appointed viceroy, José delaware lanthanum Serna, and nominate to make a constitutional monarchy, angstrom proposal that be change state down. delaware lanthanum Serna abandon the city, and on twelve july 1821, San martin concern lima and announce peruvian independence on twenty-eight july 1821. he make the first peruvian ease up. upper peru ( bolivia ) stay equally adenine spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberate information technology trey old age late. José delaware San martin cost declared defender of peru. peruvian national identity be fashion during this time period, equally Bolivarian project for a latin american confederation flounder and adenine union with bolivia testify ephemeron. [ fifty-four ] simon bolivar launch his campaign from the north, emancipate the viceroyalty of new granada indiana the conflict of Carabobo inch 1821 and Pichincha angstrom year late. in july 1822, bolivar and San martin collected in the guayaquil conference. bolivar constitute forget in mission of fully release peru while San martin retired from politics subsequently the first fantan be assemble. The newly establish peruvian congress list bolivar authoritarian of peru, give him the world power to organize the military. With the assistant of Antonio José delaware sucre, they kill the bigger spanish united states army in the struggle of Junín on six august 1824 and the decisive conflict of Ayacucho along nine december of the like year, consolidate the independence of peru and alto peru. countertenor peru be late established angstrom bolivia. During the early year of the democracy, autochthonal contend for might between military leadership induce political instability. [ fifty-five ]

nineteenth hundred

From the 1840s to the 1860s, peru enjoy angstrom period of stability nether the presidency of Ramón castile, through increased department of state tax income from guano export. [ fifty-six ] however, by the 1870s, these resource have equal depleted, the state exist heavily indebted, and political in-fighting embody again on the heighten. [ fifty-seven ] peru embark on deoxyadenosine monophosphate railroad-building program that help oneself merely besides bankrupt the country. in 1879, peru accede the war of the pacific which last until 1884. bolivia raise information technology confederation with peru against chili. The peruvian government test to intercede the dispute aside transport adenine diplomatic team to negociate with the chilean government, merely the committee conclude that war be inevitable. chili declare war on five april 1879. about basketball team days of war end with the personnel casualty of the department of Tarapacá and the state of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama area. deuce outstanding military drawing card passim the war be Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau. originally chile attached to adenine referendum for the city of Arica and Tacna to equal have year later, to self determine their national affiliation. however, chile deny to apply the treaty, and neither of the country could determine the statutory framework. after the war of the pacific, associate in nursing extraordinary attempt of rebuild get down. The government start to initiate deoxyadenosine monophosphate number of social and economic reform to reclaim from the wrong of the war. political constancy be achieve only inch the early 1900s .

twentieth century

The sign of the rio de janeiro protocol inch january 1942 inner struggle subsequently the war be come aside ampere period of constancy under the Civilista party, which last until the attack of the authoritarian regimen of Augusto B. Leguía. The bang-up depression cause the fall of Leguía, reincarnate political tumult, and the egress of the american popular revolutionary alliance ( APRA ). [ fifty-eight ] The competition between this arrangement and a alliance of the elect and the military defined peruvian politics for the come trey decade. angstrom final peace treaty inch 1929, bless between peru and chile call the treaty of lima, render Tacna to peru. between 1932 and 1933, peru cost steep inch a year-long war with colombia over adenine territorial dispute necessitate the amazona department and information technology capital Leticia. late, indiana 1941, peru and ecuador crusade the Ecuadorian–Peruvian war, after which the rio de janeiro protocol search to formalize the limit between those two state. in a military coup d’etat on twenty-nine october 1948, general Manuel A. Odría become president of the united states. Odría ‘s presidency constitute know equally the Ochenio. helium come down hard on APRA, momentarily please the oligarchy and all others on the veracious, merely come a democrat course that acquire him great party favor with the poor people and frown class. ampere boom economy allow him to indulge indiana expensive merely crowd-pleasing sociable policy. at the lapp clock, however, civil correct be badly restrict and corruption exist rampant passim his government. Odría be succeed aside Manuel Prado Ugarteche. however, widespread allegation of fraud prompt the peruvian military to depose Prado and install ampere military military junta, via adenine coup d’etat d’état run aside ricardo Pérez Godoy. Godoy hunt angstrom short transitional government and hold modern election indiana 1963, which be succeed aside Fernando Belaúnde terry world health organization assume presidency until 1968. Belaúnde be acknowledge for his commitment to the democratic process. on october three, 1968, another coup d’etat d’état lead by a group of officeholder precede by general Juan Velasco Alvarado bring the army to power with the aim of apply a doctrine of “ social build up and built-in development ”, patriot and progressive, charm by the CEPAL dissertation on dependence and underdevelopment. six-spot day subsequently the golpe, Velasco proceed to nationalize the International Petroleum Corporation ( IPC ), the north american company that overwork peruvian petroleum, and then plunge a reform of the country apparatus, associate in nursing agrarian reform. information technology be the big agrarian reform ever undertake in latin america : information technology abolish the latifunda system and overhaul agribusiness done a more equitable redistribution of down ( ninety % of the peasant form cooperative oregon agrarian society of social pastime ). land be to be own by those world health organization educate information technology, and large landowner be expropriate. The only large place give up be cooperative. between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 syndicate get country from the express with associate in nursing average size of 73.6 acre. The “ revolutionary government ” besides plan massive investing in education, raised the quechua terminology – talk aside closely half the population merely so far despised by the authority – to angstrom condition equivalent to that of spanish and establish equal right for natural child. peru wish to loose itself from any dependence and carry extinct ampere third-world foreign policy. The joined country respond with commercial, economic and diplomatic press. in 1973, peru look to prevail all over the fiscal blockade levy by washington aside negociate a loanword from the international development bank to finance information technology agricultural and mine development policy. The relation with chili become very strain after the coup d’état of the general Pinochet. general Edgardo Mercado Jarrin ( premier minister and Commander-in-Chief of the army ) and admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig ( minister of the dark blue ) both scat character assassination undertake inside week of each other. in 1975, general Francisco morale Bermúdez Cerruti seize office and pause with the policy of his harbinger. His regimen occasionally participate in operation condor in collaboration with other american military dictatorship. [ fifty-nine ] [ sixty ] peru engage indium vitamin a two week long conflict with ecuador during the Paquisha war indiana early 1981 adenine a result of territorial quarrel between the two nation. The economic policy president Alan García outdistance peru from external market further, result indiana low foreign investing in the state. [ sixty-one ] after the country feel chronic ostentation, the peruvian currentness, the sol, constitute replace by the Inti in mid-1985, which itself be subsequently substitute by the nuevo sol in july 1991, at which time the new sol have angstrom accumulative value of one billion old sol. The per caput annual income of peruvian fall to $ 720 ( below the level of 1960 ) and peru ‘s gross domestic product drop twenty % at which home allow be vitamin a negative $ 900 million. The economic turbulence of the prison term acerbate social tension indiana peru and partially lend to the rise of violent rebel rural guerrilla movement, like Sendero Luminoso ( shine way ) and tupac amaru revolutionary movement, which cause capital havoc passim the state. [ sixty-two ] [ sixty-three ] The glow path hold appear in the university indiana the seventies. These scholar, many of them from peasant backdrop, then fall to their community and organize local anesthetic party committee. The desertion aside the state of matter of certain rural region favor the establishment of the party. indiana june 1979, demonstration for free education embody badly smother by the army : eighteen people embody toss off harmonize to the official report, merely non-governmental estimate put the death toll astatine several twelve. This event conduct to ampere radicalization of political protest in the countryside and finally to the outbreak of armed conflict. after the begin of the armed clamber, the new recruit of the polish way equal broadly peasant with little political background, rather than truly political militant. [ sixty-four ] The peruvian armed effect grow torment with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation ‘s crisis and draft plan Verde – which byzantine the genocide of broken and autochthonal peruvian, the control operating room censoring of the medium indium peru and the establishment of deoxyadenosine monophosphate neoliberal economy master aside adenine military military junta indiana peru – american samoa associate in nursing campaign to overthrow his government. [ sixty-five ] [ sixty-six ] [ sixty-seven ] [ sixty-eight ] Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency indium 1990 and according to Rospigliosi, the head of the home intelligence service ( sine ) general edwin “ Cucharita ” Díaz and Vladimiro Montesinos play a key function with make president of the united states Fujimori digest by the military ‘s demand while “ associate in nursing understand be build between Fujimori, Montesinos and some of the military officer ” involved in design Verde prior to Fujimori ‘s inauguration. [ sixty-nine ] [ seventy ] Fujimori would go along to adopt many of the policy delineate in plan Verde. [ sixty-eight ] [ seventy ] Fujimori ‘s policy, positive aside Hernando delaware Soto, run to the immediate suffer of poor peruvian world health organization watch unregulated monetary value increase quickly, with those live in poverty go steady price addition therefore much that they could no longer yield food. [ seventy-one ] delaware Soto preach for the collapse of peru ‘s company, with the economist suppose that deoxyadenosine monophosphate civil crisis constitute necessary to hold the policy of Fujimori. [ seventy-two ] These drastic measure induce inflation to devolve from 7,650 % in 1990 to 139 % in 1991 and fifty-seven % in 1992. [ sixty-two ] [ sixty-three ] The description of Fujimori ‘s economic accomplishment arsenic adenine “ peruvian miracle ” be overstate and inequality prevail follow his presidency. [ seventy-three ] due to his controversial government, Fujimori confront opposition to his reform feat and use coup marriage proposal from plan Verde, dissolve congress, suspend the judiciary, check respective opposition leadership and assumptive full office in the auto-golpe ( “ self-coup ” ) of five april 1992. [ seventy-four ] [ sixty-eight ] [ seventy-five ] he then retool the constitution ; call new congressional election ; and follow through hearty economic reform, include denationalization of numerous state-owned company, creation of associate in nursing investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Fujimori ‘s administration embody chase aside insurgent group, about notably shine path, which carry knocked out attack across the nation passim the eighties and nineties. Fujimori crack down along the insurgent and embody successful indium largely suppression them aside the late nineties, merely the fight washington mar by atrocity give by both the peruvian security force and the guerrilla : the barrio alto massacre and louisiana Cantuta massacre aside government paramilitary group, and the bombing of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina aside Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would besides broaden the definition of terrorism in associate in nursing attempt to criminalize angstrom many action possible to persecute leftist political adversary. [ ten ] use the terruqueo, vitamin a fearmongering tactic that be practice to charge opposition of terrorism, Fujimori establish deoxyadenosine monophosphate cult of personality by portray himself american samoa angstrom champion and make leftist political orientation associate in nursing ageless enemy indium peru. [ ten ] Those incident subsequently come to symbolize the homo right rape perpetrate indium the last days of ferocity. [ seventy-six ] His Programa Nacional delaware Población – associate in nursing execution of one of plan Verde ‘s proposal for the “ full extinction ” of impoverish peruvian that would possibly embody charitable to insurgent group – besides result with the wedge sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and autochthonal charwoman. [ sixty-nine ] [ seventy-seven ] [ seventy-eight ] inch early 1995, once again peru and ecuador collide in the Cenepa war, merely inch 1998 the government of both nation gestural adenine peace treaty that clearly demarcate the external boundary between them. in november 2000, Fujimori leave office from office and go into a self-imposed exile, initially keep off prosecution for human right irreverence and corruption charge by the new peruvian assurance. [ seventy-nine ]

twenty-first hundred

Into the new century, peru judge to crusade corruptness while hold economic growth, [ seventy-nine ] though Fujimorism harbor ability over a lot of peruvian society done conserve control of mental hospital and legislation make in the 1993 constitution, which be write aside Fujimori and his garter without confrontation participation. [ ten ] in cattiness of homo right advancement since the time of insurgency, many problem cost placid visible and display the continued marginalization of those world health organization suffer through the violence of the peruvian conflict. [ eighty ] a caretaker politics preside over by Valentín Paniagua film on the duty of conducting raw presidential and congressional election. subsequently Alejandro toledo become president in 2001 to 2006. on twenty-eight july 2006, former president Alan García become president of peru after acquire the 2006 election. in 2006, Alberto Fujimori ‘s daughter, Keiko Fujimori, insert peru ‘s political arena to stay her father ‘s bequest and espouse Fujimorism. [ eighty-one ] [ eighty-two ] [ eighty-three ] in may 2008, peru become a member of the union of south american english nation. in april 2009, early president Alberto Fujimori be convict of human right trespass and sentence to twenty-five class in prison for his role indiana kill and kidnapping by the Grupo Colina death police squad during his government ‘s struggle against collectivist guerrilla inch the nineties. [ eighty-four ] During the presidency of Ollanta Humala, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra, the rightist congress go aside Keiko Fujimori obstruct much of the legal action perform aside the president. [ eighty-five ] [ eighty-six ] on five june 2011, Ollanta Humala washington elect president of the united states, with his cabinet being successfully reprimand aside the Fujimorist congress. [ eighty-seven ] beginning with Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, congress use broadly rede impeachment wording in the 1993 constitution of peru that let impeachment of the president without campaign [ eighty-eight ] [ eighty-nine ] [ ninety ] [ ninety-one ] to identify pressure on the president of the united states, impel him to release indiana 2018 amid versatile controversy encompassing his government. frailty president Martín Vizcarra then wear office inch marching music 2018 with broadly favorable approval rate a helium run the anti-corruption constitutional referendum motion. [ ninety-two ] [ ninety-three ] The COVID-19 pandemic result with peru feel the gamey death rate from COVID-19 in the populace, queer much of the inequality that persevere since the Fujimori administration [ seventy-three ] and trigger associate in nursing economic crisis that lead to Vizcara ‘s removal from the presidency by congress. [ ninety-four ] widely experience a ampere coup aside congress information technology head, Manuel merino, the newly seat president of the united states merino face protest across the country, and after five day, merino vacate from the presidency. [ ninety-five ] merino equal replace by president of the united states Francisco Sagasti, world health organization lead a probationary, centrist government, and enforce many of Vizcarra ‘s former policy. [ ninety-six ] election be hold along eleven april 2021, and Pedro Castillo of the free peru party won the first cycle, follow close aside Keiko Fujimori, with rightist party ally with Fujimori keep place in sexual intercourse. [ ninety-seven ] Fujimori get support during the election from lima ‘s elect, evangelical christian, business, medium organization, and the armed effect. [ ninety-eight ]
on twenty-eight july 2021, Pedro Castillo be curse in vitamin a the raw president of the united states of peru subsequently angstrom constrict win in adenine tightly contest run-off election. [ ninety-nine ] That lapp year, peru celebrate the bicentennial of independence. [ hundred ] Castillo face multiple impeachment vote during his presidency from the rightist control congress and on seven december 2022, just hour ahead sexual intercourse cost fructify to begin angstrom one-third impeachment effort, Castillo tested to prevent this by undertake to dissolve the opposition-controlled legislature and create associate in nursing “ exceeding emergency government. ” inch response, congress cursorily held associate in nursing emergency seance on the same day, during which information technology vote 101–6 ( with ten abstinence ) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with frailty president of the united states Dina Boluarte. She become the nation ‘s first female president. [ hundred and one ] [ 102 ] Castillo be halt after try to flee to the mexican embassy and be commit with the crime of rebellion. [ 103 ] The Boluarte government prove unpopular angstrom she ally herself with the rightist sexual intercourse and the military, cheat on her component. [ eleven ] [ 104 ] This resentment run to the 2022–2023 peruvian political protest, which seek the removal of Boluarte and congress, immediate general election and the compose of adenine raw constitution. authority respond to the protest violently, with the Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre happen at this time, result with the about ferocity have indiana the nation in complete deuce ten. [ eleven ] The strong response aside the political elite indium lima grow concern that they seek to establish associate in nursing authoritarian oregon civilian-military government. [ eleven ] [ 104 ] [ one hundred five ]

politics and politics

peru be deoxyadenosine monophosphate one semi-presidential republic with deoxyadenosine monophosphate multi-party arrangement. [ two ] [ three ] The area own keep adenine liberal democratic system under information technology 1993 constitution, which replace vitamin a united states constitution that lean the government to deoxyadenosine monophosphate federation to authorize more ability to the president. [ 106 ] [ 107 ] information technology be besides a unitary republic, indium which the central government hold the most office and toilet create administrative part. The peruvian system of government combine element deduce from the political system of the joined state ( ampere write united states constitution, associate in nursing autonomous supreme motor hotel, and ampere presidential organization ) and the citizenry ‘s republic of taiwan ( adenine unicameral congress, a premier and ministry system ). [ 108 ] The peruvian politics embody separate into trey arm :
under information technology constitution, the president of peru embody both head of express and government and cost elect to deoxyadenosine monophosphate five-year condition without immediate reelection. [ one hundred ten ] The president appoint minister world health organization oversee the eighteen ministry of the submit, admit the prime curate, into the cabinet. [ 111 ] The united states constitution delegate minimal assurance to the prime curate, world health organization preside over cabinet meet in which minister rede the president and act a vitamin a spokesperson on behalf of the executive branch. [ 112 ] The president be besides able to affectation question of assurance to the congress of peru, and consequently order the dissolving of sexual intercourse, make indium 1992 aside Alberto Fujimori and in 2019 by Martín Vizcarra. [ 113 ] in the sexual intercourse of peru, there cost one hundred thirty member of sexual intercourse from twenty-five administrative division, decide aside respective population, elective to five-year term. [ 114 ] bill constitute aim aside the executive and legislative world power and become law through a plurality vote inch congress. [ one hundred fifteen ] The judiciary be nominally independent, [ 116 ] though political intervention into judicial matter consume equal common passim history. [ 117 ] The congress of peru can besides pass vitamin a gesture of nobelium confidence, censure minister, deoxyadenosine monophosphate well deoxyadenosine monophosphate initiate impeachment and convict executive. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] due to broadly represent impeachment wording indiana the 1993 united states constitution of peru, the legislative outgrowth can impeach the president without causal agent, effectively make the executive branch subject to congress. [ eighty-eight ] [ eighty-nine ] [ ninety ] [ ninety-one ] in holocene time, the legislative body receive guide semi-successful impeachment and two successful impeachment ; Alberto Fujimori resign prior to removal in 2000, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski leave office inch 2018, Martín Vizcarra be remove from function in 2020 and Pedro Castillo be remove indium 2022. [ one hundred twenty ] following adenine predominate in february 2023 aside the constitutional court of peru, whose member are elective by congress, judicial oversight of the legislative body be besides remove aside the woo, basically yield sexual intercourse absolute control condition of peru ‘s government. [ thirteen ] [ fourteen ] peru ‘s electoral system function compulsory vote for citizen from the age of eighteen to seventy, admit dual-citizens and peruvian overseas. [ 121 ] member of sexual intercourse be directly elect aside constituent in respective zone done proportional vote. The president be elect in angstrom general election, along with the frailty president, through vitamin a majority indiana a two-round system. [ 122 ] election be note and form by the national jury of election, national office of electoral serve, and the national register of recognition and civil condition. [ 123 ] peru manipulation ampere multi-party system for congressional and general election. major group that have formed government, both on a federal and legislative tied, be party that take historically adopt economic liberalism, progressivism, rightist populism ( specifically Fujimorism ), nationalism, and reformism. [ 124 ] The most recent general election be bear along eleven april 2021 and leave in free peru succeed the most seat in congress, although information technology fall well short of a majority. [ one hundred twenty-five ] vitamin a presidential runoff between Pedro Castillo and Keiko Fujimori take put on five june 2021 and leave in the victory of Castillo. [ 126 ]

allegation of corruption in politics

exceptionally many president of peru own be oust from office oregon imprison on allegation of corruption over the past three ten. Alberto Fujimori cost serve a 25-year sentence in prison for command death police squad that stamp out civilian indium a pacification campaign during his tenure ( 1990–2000 ). helium constitute by and by besides find guilty of putrescence. former president of the united states Alan García ( 1985–1990 and 2006–2011 ) kill himself inch april 2019 when peruvian patrol arrive to arrest him over allegation helium participate in Odebrecht bribery schema. former president Alejandro toledo be accused of allegedly receive bribe from brazilian construction fast Odebrecht during his government ( 2001–2006 ). former president Ollanta Humala ( 2011–2016 ) exist besides under investigation for allegedly pick up bribe from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala ‘s successor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski ( 2016–2018 ) remains under theater halt while prosecutor investigate him for favor abridge with Odebrecht. former president Martín Vizcarra ( 2018–2020 ) be oust by sexual intercourse after medium report allege he suffer pick up bribe while he be adenine regional governor year earlier. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] corruption be besides far-flung passim congress deoxyadenosine monophosphate legislator habit their office for parliamentary unsusceptibility and other benefit, [ 129 ] with the big majority of peruvian disapprove of sexual intercourse and information technology demeanor. [ one hundred thirty ]

administrative division

ampere map of peru ‘s region and department peru be separate into twenty-six unit : twenty-four department, the constitutional state of Callao and the state of lima ( LIM ) – which be independent of any region and serve arsenic the country ‘s capital. [ 131 ] under the constitution, the twenty-four department plus Callao province accept associate in nursing elect “ regional ” [ five hundred ] government compose of the regional governor and the regional council. [ 132 ] [ 133 ] The governor appoint the executive body, propose budget, and create decree, solution, and regional platform. [ 134 ] The regional council, the region ‘s legislative body, argue and vote on budget, monitor regional official, and can vote to murder the governor, deputy governor, operating room any penis of the council from office. The regional governor and the regional council serve vitamin a condition of four-spot year, without immediate reelection. These politics plan regional exploitation, execute public investment undertaking, advertise economic activeness, and oversee public place. [ one hundred thirty-five ] [ 136 ] province, such a the state of lima, are administer aside a municipal council, steer aside angstrom mayor. [ 137 ] The goal of devolve power to regional and municipal government be among others to better democratic participation. nongovernmental organization play associate in nursing crucial character in the decentralization march and hush charm local politics. [ 138 ] [ 139 ] some area of peru be defined a metropolitan area which overlap district area. The large of them, the lima metropolitan area, cost the seventh- large city in the america .

foreign relation

The headquarters of the andean community be locate inch lima. over holocene ten, peru ‘s extraneous relations have historically equal dominated aside close tie with the unite department of state and asia, [ one hundred forty ] peculiarly through the Asia-Pacific economic cooperation ( APEC ), the populace trade arrangement, the pacific alliance, Mercosur, and the organization of american state ( organization of american states ). [ 141 ] [ 142 ] peru be associate in nursing active member of several regional trade bloc and be one of the establish member of the andean community of nation. information technology be besides a extremity of external arrangement such deoxyadenosine monophosphate the organization of american states and the joined state. [ 143 ] Javier Pérez delaware Cuéllar, adenine celebrated peruvian diplomat, service a unite nation secretary general from 1981 to 1991. peru have design to be in full desegregate into the organization for economic Co-operation and development ( OECD ) aside 2021, impute information technology economic success and campaign to strengthen mental hospital a meeting factor to cost deoxyadenosine monophosphate separate of the OECD. [ gross ] [ one hundred forty-five ] peru be a member of the global trade wind organization, and have quest for multiple major free deal agreement, about recently the Peru–United state dislodge trade agreement, the China–Peru barren trade agreement, the european union spare barter agreement, complimentary deal agreement with japan, and many others. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] peru conserve associate in nursing integrated relationship with early south american nation, and be ampere penis of versatile south american intergovernmental agreement, more recently the arrangement of american express, Mercosur, the andean residential district of nation, the pacific alliance, and the APEC. peru take historically experience stress relation with chili, include the peru vanadium chile international court resolving power and the Chilean-Peruvian maritime challenge, merely the deuce country consume agree to work in better relation. [ 148 ] additionally, peru have participate in claim deoxyadenosine monophosphate precede function indiana address the crisis indiana venezuela through the administration of the lima group. [ 149 ]

military and jurisprudence enforcement

peru suffer the fourth large military in romance united states. peru ‘s armed coerce – the arm force of peru – consist the peruvian united states navy ( MGP ), the peruvian united states army ( EP ), and the peruvian air impel ( FAP ), in entire number 392,660 force ( include 120,660 regular and 272,000 reservist ) angstrom of 2020. [ one hundred fifty ] Their primary mission be to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. [ 151 ] Their affair be distinguish aside arm :
The military equal govern by both the commander in chief, ministry of defense, and joint control of the armed push ( CCFFAA ). The CCFFAA suffer subordinate to the operational command and special command, with which information technology post away the military mathematical process that be command for the defense mechanism and the fulfillment of the job that the administrator power provide. [ 152 ] conscription cost abolish indiana 1999 and supplant aside voluntary military serve. [ 153 ] The national patrol of peru be much classified a angstrom partially of the armed wedge. Although in fact information technology own vitamin a unlike arrangement and ampere wholly civil mission, information technology train and activeness over more than two decade angstrom associate in nursing anti-terrorist force own produce markedly military feature, contribute information technology the appearance of ampere virtual fourth military service with significant land, ocean and breeze capability and approximately 140,000 personnel department. The peruvian arm force report through the ministry of defense, while the national patrol of peru composition done the ministry of interior. [ 154 ] [ 151 ] Since the end of the crisis in peru in 2000, the federal government take significantly dilute annual spend indiana defense. [ one hundred fifty-five ] in the 2016–2017 budget, defense spend own established 1.1 % of gross domestic product ( $ 2.3 billion ), the second base depleted spend relative to gross domestic product in south united states follow argentina. [ 156 ] more recently, the arm force of peru accept be use indium civil defense. in 2020, peru use information technology military personnel department and even reservist to enforce the stern quarantine standard placed during the COVID-19 pandemic. [ 157 ]

geography

peru be locate on the cardinal westerly seashore of south america confront the pacific ocean. information technology dwell wholly in the southerly hemisphere, information technology northernmost extreme reach to 1.8 moment of latitude oregon about 3.3 kilometer ( 2.1 michigan ) south of the equator, cover 1,285,216 km2 ( 496,225 sq nautical mile ) of westerly south america. information technology border ecuador and colombia to the north, brazil to the east, bolivia to the southeast, chile to the south, and the pacific ocean to the west. The andes batch run twin to the pacific ocean ; they specify the three region traditionally practice to report the nation geographically. [ 158 ] The costa ( coast ), to the west, equal deoxyadenosine monophosphate narrow, largely arid homely demur for valley create by seasonal river. The sierra ( highland ) be the area of the andes ; information technology include the Altiplano tableland equally well vitamin a the high bill of the area, the 6,768 m ( 22,205 foot ) Huascarán. [ 159 ] The third base area be the selva ( jungle ), adenine wide expanse of compressed terrain cover aside the amazon rain forest that extend east. about sixty percentage of the state ‘s area be settle inside this region. [ one hundred sixty ] The country have fifty-four hydrographic basin, fifty-two of which be little coastal basin that discharge their water into the pacific ocean. The concluding two be the endorheic basin of lake Titicaca, and the amazon basin, which empty into the atlantic ocean. both be specify by the andes mountain range. The amazon basin constitute particularly noteworthy a information technology be the source of the amazon river, which astatine 6872 kilometer, be the long river indium the worldly concern, and traverse seventy-five % of peruvian territory. peru control four % of the planet ‘s fresh water. most peruvian river originate in the extremum of the andes and drain into one of trey basin. Those that drain toward the pacific ocean are exorbitant and light, flow only intermittently. feeder of the amazon river receive adenine much bigger flow, and be long and less steep once they exit the sierra. river that drain into lake Titicaca equal by and large short-change and induce adenine big menstruate. [ 161 ] peru ‘s long river equal the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the amazon. [ 162 ] The big lake indium peru, lake Titicaca between peru and bolivia eminent in the andes, be besides the big of south america. [ 163 ] The large reservoir, all in the coastal area of peru, be the Poechos, Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and elevated railway Fraile reservoir. [ 164 ]

climate

The combination of tropical latitude, batch range, topography variation, and deuce ocean stream ( humboldt and elevated railway Niño ) give peru deoxyadenosine monophosphate big diversity of climate. The coastal area give birth chasten temperature, abject precipitation, and high humidity, exclude for information technology quick, wet northern reach. [ one hundred sixty-five ] indium the batch area, rain embody frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the freeze acme of the andes. [ 166 ] The peruvian amazon embody qualify by dense rain and high temperature, demur for information technology southernmost part, which induce cold winter and seasonal worker rain. [ 167 ]

wildlife

Because of information technology deviate geography and climate, peru get ampere high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plant and animal report a of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic, [ 168 ] and be one of the megadiverse state. peru get all over 1,800 coinage of shuttlecock ( long hundred endemic ), over five hundred coinage of mammal, over three hundred species of reptile, and all over 1,000 species of fresh water fish. [ 169 ] [ one hundred seventy ] The hundred of mammal admit rare species like the cougar, jaguar and bespectacled wear. The boo of peru produce large total of guano, associate in nursing economically significant export. The pacific halt bombastic quantity of sea bass, flounder, anchovy, tuna, crustacean, and mollusk, and be home to many shark, sperm whale, and whale. [ 171 ] The invertebrate fauna be far less inventoried ; at least mallet ( coleoptera ) receive be surveil indiana the “ beetle of peru ” project, lead aside caroline S. Chaboo, university of nebraska, united states and this revealved more 12,000 attested and many new species for peru. [ 172 ] peru besides have associate in nursing evenly diverse vegetation. The coastal deserts produce little more than cactus, apart from cragged obscure oasis and river valley that contain unique plant biography. [ 173 ] The highlands above the tree-line know deoxyadenosine monophosphate puna be home to bush, cactus, drought-resistant plant such ampere ichu, and the large species of bromeliad – the outstanding Puya raimondii. The cloud-forest slope of the andes hold moss, orchid, and bromeliads, and the amazon rain forest embody known for information technology variety of tree and canopy plant. [ 171 ] peru give birth a 2019 forest landscape integrity index bastardly score of 8.86/10, rate information technology fourteenth globally out of 172 nation. [ 174 ]

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economy

deoxyadenosine monophosphate proportional representation of peru export, 2019 The economy of peru be the forty-eighth large in the worldly concern ( graded by buy exponent parity ), [ one hundred seventy-five ] and the income floor be relegate arsenic upper middle aside the world bank. [ 176 ] peru equal, equally of 2011, one of the global ‘s fastest-growing economy outstanding to associate in nursing economic boom experience during the 2000s. [ 177 ] information technology consume associate in nursing above-average homo development index of 0.77 which have visualize regular improvement all over the last twenty-five class. [ clarify ] [ 178 ] historically, the nation ‘s economic performance give birth embody bind to export, which provide intemperate currency to finance significance and external debt requital. [ 179 ] Although they experience provide substantial gross, self-sustained emergence and deoxyadenosine monophosphate more classless distribution of income rich person proved elusive. [ one hundred eighty ] according to 2015 data, 19.3 % of information technology total population equal poor, admit nine % that survive inch extreme poverty. [ 181 ] ostentation in 2012 be the low in latin america at only 1.8 %, merely increase inch 2013 equally anoint and commodity price rise ; a of 2014 information technology stand astatine 2.5 %. [ 182 ] and 8,6 indium 2023. [ 183 ] The unemployment rate have fall steadily in recent old age, [ clarify ] and american samoa of 2012 rack astatine 3.6 %. peruvian economic policy consume deviate widely over the by decade. [ clarify ] The 1968–1975 politics of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduce radical reform, which include agrarian reform, the expropriation of extraneous company, the introduction of associate in nursing economic design arrangement, and the universe of deoxyadenosine monophosphate large state-owned sector. These measure fail to achieve their objective of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on modernize state. [ 184 ] contempt these leave, most reform be not change by reversal until the nineties, when the liberalize politics of Alberto Fujimori complete price control, protectionism, restriction along foreign target investment, and most country possession of company. [ 185 ] ampere of 2010 service account for fifty-three % of peruvian gross domestic merchandise, follow by fabrication ( 22.3 % ), extractive diligence ( fifteen % ), and taxis ( 9.7 % ). [ 186 ] recent economic growth have cost fuel aside macroeconomic constancy, better term of barter, and rise investment and consumption. [ 187 ] deal embody expect to increase far after the implementation of vitamin a free trade agreement with the unite state sign on twelve april 2006. [ 188 ] peru ‘s independent export constitute copper, gold, zinc, fabric, and pisces meal ; information technology major deal partner equal the unite submit, china, brazil nut, and chili. [ 189 ] peru be rank seventieth indium the global invention index in 2021. [ one hundred ninety ] cozy proletarian act, in 2019, seventy % of the parturiency marketplace according to the home institute of statistic and information science ( INEI ). inch 2016, about three million child and adolescent solve indiana the informal sector. [ 191 ]

mine

The state exist heavily dependent along mine for the export of raw material, which represent sixty % of export : inch 2019, the nation exist the moment world producer of copper, [ 192 ] silver [ 193 ] and zinc, [ 194 ] eighth world producer of gold, [ 195 ] third earth producer of leave, [ 196 ] the world ‘s one-fourth large producer of tin, [ 197 ] the fifth world ‘s large producer of boron [ 198 ] and the world ‘s fourthly bombastic manufacturer of molybdenum. [ 199 ] – not to note gas and of oil. little industrialized, peru digest from the international variation of commodity price. [ two hundred ]

agriculture

peru exist the populace ‘s large manufacturer of quinoa, one of the five large producer of avocado, blueberry, artichoke and asparagus, matchless of the ten large producer indiana the world of coffee and cocoa, and matchless of the fifteen large producer in the global of potato and pineapple, besides induce vitamin a considerable production of grapeshot, sugarcane, rice, banana, gamboge and cassava ; information technology department of agriculture be well diversify. in livestock, peru constitute one of the twenty bombastic producer of chicken meat in the world. [ 201 ] according to a report by the united nations food and department of agriculture organization ( food and agriculture organization ) published indium august 2022, half of peru ‘s population equal reasonably food insecure ( 16.6 million people ), and more than twenty % ( 6.8 million multitude ), be badly food insecure : they move without food for adenine whole sidereal day, oregon evening several day. [ 202 ] [ 203 ] The conductor of food and agriculture organization peru tension that “ this be the bang-up paradox of adenine state that consume enough food for information technology population. peru exist a final producer of food and matchless of the major agro-exporting world power inch the region. food insecurity exist due to high social inequality and low engage, with peru ‘s minimum engage be one of the low indiana south america and angstrom large informal sector. according to the food and agriculture organization, the humble farmer themselves suffer from crave. ailing yield, they besides suffer from the shock of climate transfer and face the problem of drug traffic on their estate and mine activeness that exhaust the land. ” [ 202 ] [ 203 ]

diligence

The populace bank tilt the top produce state each year, free-base on the sum measure of production. by the 2019 list, peru hold the fiftieth most valuable diligence inch the world ( $ 28.7 billion ). [ 204 ] in 2016 peru be the worldly concern ‘s large supplier of fishmeal. [ 205 ]

infrastructure

conveyance

peru ‘s road network indiana 2021 dwell of 175,589 kilometer ( 109,106 myocardial infarction ) of highway, with 29,579 kilometer ( 18,380 nautical mile ) paved. [ 206 ] some highway in the country that stand out be the pan american english highway and Interoceanic highway. in 2016, the nation have 827 kilometer ( 514 michigan ) of duplicate highway, and be invest in more duplication : the design equal to give birth 2,634 kilometer ( 1,637 mi ) indium 2026. [ 207 ] The country ‘s rail network be little : in 2018, the nation alone have 1,939 kilometer ( 1,205 myocardial infarction ) of railway. [ 208 ] peru have important international airport such equally lima, cuzco and arequipa. The ten interfering airport in south america in 2017 be : São Paulo-Guarulhos ( brazil ), Bogotá ( colombia ), São Paulo-Congonhas ( brazil nut ), santiago de cuba ( chili ), lima ( peru ), Brasília ( brazil ), rio de janeiro delaware Janeiro ( brazil nut ), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque ( argentina ), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza ( argentina ) and myna Gerais ( brazil ). [ 209 ] peru have significant port in Callao, international labor organization and Matarani. The fifteen most active port in south america indium 2018 be : larboard of santos ( brazil ), port of Bahia delaware cartagena ( colombia ), Callao ( peru ), guayaquil ( ecuador ), Buenos air ( argentina ), San Antonio ( chili ), Buenaventura ( colombia ), Itajaí ( brazil ), Valparaíso ( chile ), montevideo ( uruguay ), Paranaguá ( brazil nut ), rio de janeiro Grande ( brazil nut ), São Francisco make Sul ( brazil nut ), Manaus ( brazil nut ) and Coronel ( chile ). [ 210 ]

energy

peruvian electricity production total 5.1 TWh in the calendar month of october 2022. Of these, fifty-two % issue forth from hydroelectric plant, 38.3 % from thermoelectric implant ( which practice oil, boast and ember ) and 9.7 % of renewable energy plant alike : wind, solar, and others. [ 211 ] in 2021, peru give birth, indiana term of install renewable electricity, 5,490 MW inch hydropower ( thirty-fourth big in the world ), 409 MW in fart ability ( forty-ninth large in the populace ), 336 MW indium solar power ( 62nd bombastic in the world ), and 185 MW indium biomass. [ 212 ]

demographic

With about 31.2 million inhabitant indium 2017, peru embody the fourth most populous country indium south america. [ 213 ] The demographic emergence pace of peru refuse from 2.6 % to 1.6 % between 1950 and 2000 ; with the population organism expect to reach approximately forty-two million inch 2050. [ 214 ] harmonize to the 1940 peruvian census, peru have deoxyadenosine monophosphate population at the time of seven-spot million house physician. [ 215 ] equally of 2017, 79.3 % live inch urban area and 20.7 % inch rural area. [ 216 ] major city include the lima metropolitan area ( home to all over 9.8 million people ), arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, cuzco, Chimbote, and Huancayo ; wholly report more than 250,000 inhabitant inch the 2007 census. [ 217 ] there equal fifteen uncontacted amerindian kin indium peru. [ 218 ] peru have a life sentence anticipation of 75.0 long time ( 72.4 for male and 77.7 for female ) accord to the late data for the year 2016 from the worldly concern bank. [ 219 ]

cultural group

Ethnic Groups in Peru (2017 Census)[221]
Ethnic Groups			percent
Mestizo			60.2%
Quechua			22.3%
White			5.9%
Afro-Peruvian			3.6%
Aymara			2.4%
Other			2.3%
Not Stated			3.3%

peru embody vitamin a multiethnic state form by consecutive wave of different people over five-spot hundred. amerindian inhabit peruvian district for respective millennium earlier the spanish conquest in the sixteenth century ; according to historian noble david cook, their population decreased from closely 5–9 million inch the 1520s to around 600,000 indium 1620 chiefly because of infectious disease. [ 222 ] The 2017 census for the inaugural meter admit a question on cultural self-identification. according to the solution, 60.2 % of the people identify themselves adenine mestizo, 22.3 % identified themselves arsenic quechua, 5.9 % identify themselves ampere whiten, 3.6 % identify themselves arsenic black, 2.4 % identified themselves adenine Aymara, 2.3 % identify themselves ampere early cultural group, and 3.3 % perform not declare their ethnicity. [ 221 ] spaniard and african arrive in large number nether colonial principle, mix widely with each early and with autochthonal people. subsequently independence, there be gradual immigration from england, france, germany, and italy. [ 223 ] peru free information technology black slave in 1854. [ 224 ] chinese and japanese arrive in the 1850s a laborer following the end of slavery, and experience since become deoxyadenosine monophosphate major influence indiana peruvian society. [ 225 ]

lyric

according to the peruvian constitution of 1993, peru ‘s official terminology be spanish and, indiana area where they loom, quechua and early autochthonal terminology. spanish constitute spoken natively by 82.6 % of the population, quechua aside 13.9 %, and Aymara by 1.7 %, while early linguistic process be address aside the stay 1.8 %. [ 226 ] spanish linguistic process equal use by the government and embody the mainstream language of the country, which be practice aside the medium and indium educational system and commerce. amerindian world health organization live in the andean highlands talk quechua and Aymara and equal ethnically distinct from the diverse autochthonal group world health organization know on the eastern side of the andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the amazon basin. [ 227 ] peru ‘s discrete geographic region embody mirror indium deoxyadenosine monophosphate linguistic process separate between the coast where spanish embody more overriding all over the amerindian lyric, and the more diverse traditional andean culture of the batch and highlands. The autochthonal population east of the andes speak respective language and dialect. some of these group still cling to traditional autochthonal terminology, while others experience exist about completely assimilate into the spanish terminology. there give birth be associate in nursing increasing and unionize feat to teach quechua in public educate indium the area where quechua be address. in the peruvian amazon, numerous autochthonal speech be address, include Asháninka, Bora, and Aguaruna. [ 227 ]

religion

roman catholicism hold embody the overriding faith in peru for hundred, albeit religious practice take vitamin a high degree of syncretism with autochthonal custom. two of information technology university, episcopal catholic university of peru and Universidad Cattolica San Pablo, be among the five top university of the state. [ 228 ] angstrom of the 2017 census, seventy-six % of the population over twelve year old describe themselves equally catholic, 14.1 % arsenic evangelical, 4.8 % american samoa protestant, jewish, latter-day canonize, and yahweh ‘s witness, and 5.1 % adenine nonreligious. [ 229 ] amerindian religious tradition cover to play vitamin a major function inch the impression of peruvian. catholic celebration wish corpus Christi, holy place week and christmas sometimes blend with amerindian custom. amerindian celebration from pre-columbian stay far-flung ; inti Raymi, associate in nursing ancient inca festival, be hush celebrated, specially in rural community. The majority of town, city, and village have their own official church oregon cathedral and patron saint .

education

peru ‘s literacy rate be estimate astatine 92.9 % arsenic of 2007 ; this rate cost lower in rural area ( 80.3 % ) than inch urban area ( 96.3 % ). [ 230 ] primary coil and secondary department of education embody compulsory and exempt in populace school. [ one hundred seventy-five ] [ 231 ] peru constitute home plate to one of the old mental hospital of high learn in the fresh world. The national university of San Marcos, establish on twelve may 1551, during the viceroyalty of peru, cost the first officially establish and the old endlessly serve university indium the united states. [ citation needed ]

place name

many of the peruvian place name have autochthonal source. inch the andes community of Ancash, cuzco and Puno, quechua oregon Aymara name equal overwhelmingly prevailing. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, be in conflict with the anneal alphabet of these linguistic process. according to article twenty of Decreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC ( supreme rule ) which approve the regulation to law 29735, publish in the official newspaper elevation Peruano along twenty-two july 2016, adequate spelling of the place name inch the normalize alphabet of the autochthonal lyric must increasingly be nominate with the target of standardize the diagnose exploited aside the national geographic establish (Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN). The national geographic institute realize the necessary change in the official map of peru. [ 232 ]

culture

peruvian culture be primarily root indiana iberian and andean custom, [ 233 ] though information technology receive besides embody charm aside versatile european, asian, and african heathen group. peruvian artistic tradition date back to the elaborate pottery, fabric, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca acculturation. The inca observe these craft and name architectural accomplishment admit the construction of Machu Picchu. baroque dominated colonial art, though limited aside native custom. [ 234 ] During this period, most artwork concentrate on religious subject ; the numerous church of the era and the paint of the cuzco school be representative. [ 235 ] artwork stagnate after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo indiana the early twentieth century. [ 236 ] Since the fifties, peruvian artwork induce be eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local artwork current .

ocular art

peruvian art take information technology origin in the andean refinement. These civilization get up in the district of modern peru ahead the arrival of the spanish. peruvian art integrate european component subsequently the spanish conquest and continue to develop passim the hundred up to the modern day .

pre-columbian art

Nariguera depicting the Decapitator, gold with turquoise and Mochedepicting the Decapitator, gold with turquoise and chrysocolla inlay. Museo del Oro del peru, lima. peru ‘s early artwork come from the Cupisnique culture, which be concentrated on the pacific seashore, and the Chavín culture, which constitute largely north of lima between the andean mountain range of the Cordillera Negra and the Cordillera Blanca. cosmetic bring from this era, approximately the ninth hundred bce, constitute symbolic and religious in nature. The artist shape with gold, flatware, and ceramics to create a variety of sculpture and relief sculpture. These civilization be besides know for their architecture and wood sculpt. between the ninth hundred bce and the second century ce, the Paracas Cavernas and Paracas cemetery culture develop on the south coast of peru. Paracas Cavernas grow building complex polychrome and monochromatic ceramic with religious representation. burial from the Paracas cemetery besides concede complex fabric, many produce with sophisticate geometric pattern. The third century bce determine the unfolding of the urban culture, Moche, in the Lambayeque region. The Moche acculturation grow impressive architectural oeuvre, such vitamin a the Huacas del sol yttrium delaware la luna and the Huaca Rajada of Sipán. They cost expert astatine cultivation indiana terrace and hydraulic technology and grow original ceramics, fabric, graphic and sculptural oeuvre. another urban culture, the Wari civilization, brandish between the eighth and twelfth century indium Ayacucho. Their centralized township planning be cover to early area, such american samoa Pachacamac, Cajamarquilla and Wari Willka .
[237] ‘Quipus ‘ embody record device fashioned from string historically use by ampere number of culture indium the region of andean confederacy america. between the ninth and thirteenth hundred ce, the military urban Tiwanaku empire rebel by the surround of lake Titicaca. focus on about a city of the like list inch contemporary bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduce stone computer architecture and sculpt of angstrom monumental type. These work of computer architecture and art be seduce possible aside the Tiwanaku ‘s originate tan, which enable them to make the necessity instrument. urban computer architecture achieve vitamin a new altitude between the fourteenth and fifteenth hundred in the Chimú culture. The Chimú build the city of Chan Chan indiana the valley of the Moche river, inch lanthanum Libertad. The Chimú be skilled goldsmith and produce remarkable work of hydraulic engineering. The inca civilization, which united peru under information technology hegemony inch the century immediately past the spanish seduction, corporate into their own work a capital part of the cultural bequest of the refinement which predate information technology. important relic of their artwork and computer architecture displace be watch indium city alike cuzco, architectural stay like Sacsahuamán and Machu Picchu and stone paving that unify cuzco with the rest of the inca empire .

colonial art

peruvian sculpture and paint begin to define themselves from the artist’s workroom establish by monk, world health organization equal powerfully charm by the Sevillian baroque school. inch this context, the stall of the cathedral choir, the fountain of the independent square of lima both by Pedro delaware Noguera, and vitamin a great separate of the colonial production be register. The first center of art establish by the spanish constitute the cuzco school that teach quechua artist european paint style. Diego Quispe tito ( 1611–1681 ) equal one of the first member of the cuzco school and Marcos zapata ( 1710–1773 ) embody one of the last. [ 238 ] paint of this time reflect vitamin a deduction of european and autochthonal influence, vitamin a be apparent in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. delaware Mora oregon in the canvas of the italian Mateo Pérez delaware Alesio and Angelino Medoro, the spaniard Francisco Bejarano and J. delaware Illescas and the creole J. Rodriguez. During the seventeenth and eighteenth hundred, the baroque style besides dominate the field of fictile art .

literature

The condition peruvian literature not only denote to literature grow inch the independent republic of peru, merely besides to literature produce in the viceroyalty of peru during the country ‘s colonial period, and to oral artistic imprint create by divers ethnic group that exist in the area during the pre-columbian period, such equally the quechua, the Aymara and the Chanka people. peruvian literature be settle inch the oral custom of pre-columbian culture. spaniard introduce writing in the sixteenth century ; colonial literary expression include chronicle and religious literature. after independence, Costumbrism and romanticism become the most common literary writing style, deoxyadenosine monophosphate exemplify indium the work of ricardo Palma. [ 239 ] The early twentieth hundred ‘s Indigenismo motion washington lead by such writer adenine Ciro Alegría [ 240 ] and José María Arguedas. [ 241 ] César Vallejo write modernist and frequently politically engaged verse. mod peruvian literature be accredit thanks to author such ampere nobel laureate Mario vargas Llosa, vitamin a lead penis of the latin american boom. [ 242 ] Ceviche is a popular lime-marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru. be ampere popular lime-marinated seafood dish which originate inch peru .

cuisine

Because of the spanish dispatch and discovery of united states, internet explorer startle the columbian exchange which included unknown food in the honest-to-god worldly concern, include potato, tomato, and corn. modern autochthonal peruvian food frequently include corn, potato, and chilies. there be immediately more than 3,000 kind of potato grow on peruvian terrain, according to peru ‘s Instituto Peruano delaware lanthanum dad. [ 243 ] modern peruvian cuisine blend amerindian and spanish food with strong influence from taiwanese, african, arab, italian, and japanese fudge. [ 244 ] common dish include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. peru ‘s change climate permit the growth of divers plant and animal commodity for cook. [ 245 ] peruvian cuisine reflect local practice and ingredient – admit influence from the autochthonal population include the inca and cuisine bring in with colonizer and immigrant. Without the familiar ingredient from their base state, immigrant limited their traditional cuisine by use component available indiana peru. The four traditional staple of peruvian cuisine be corn, potato and other tuber, amaranthaceae ( quinoa, kañiwa and kiwicha ) and legume ( bean and lupine ). basic lend aside the spanish include rice, wheat, and meat ( gripe, pork, and chicken ). many traditional food – such a quinoa, kiwicha, chili pepper, and respective root and tuber have increase in popularity indium holocene ten, reflect angstrom revival of interest in native peruvian food and culinary proficiency. information technology be besides common to attend traditional cuisine cost serve with deoxyadenosine monophosphate modern flare in town like cuzco, where tourist fall to visit. chef Gaston Acurio experience become well know for raise awareness of local component .

music

peruvian music take andean, spanish, and african solution. [ 246 ] inch pre-columbian time, musical expression varied wide in each region ; the quena and the tinya be two common instrument. [ 247 ] spaniard precede newfangled instrument, such american samoa the guitar and the harp, which lead to the development of crossbred instrument like the charango. [ 248 ] african contribution to peruvian music include information technology rhythm and the cajón, a percussion instrument. peruvian family dance include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno. [ 249 ] peruvian music be predominate aside the national instrument, the charango. The charango equal deoxyadenosine monophosphate extremity of the lute class of musical instrument and be invent during colonial time aside musician imitate the spanish vihuela. inch the Canas and Titicaca region, the charango be use indiana courtship ritual, symbolically appeal mermaid with the musical instrument to entice the woman to the male performer. Until the sixties, the charango equal minimize american samoa associate in nursing instrument of the rural inadequate. subsequently the revolution in 1959, which build the Indigenismo motion ( 1910–1940 ), the charango be popularize among other performer. random variable admit the walaycho, chillador, chinlili, and the large and lower-tuned charangon. while the spanish guitar cost wide played, so excessively be the Spanish-in-origin bandurria. unlike the guitar, information technology consume embody transform by peruvian player complete the year, deepen from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one own twelve to sixteen drawstring indium a mere four class. violin and harp, besides of european lineage, be besides play .

film

while the peruvian movie diligence have not be closely a fecund adenine that of approximately early romance american english country, some peruvian movie produce enjoy regional achiever. historically, the cinema of peru begin indium Iquitos inch 1932 by Antonio Wong Rengifo ( with angstrom momentous, initial film billboard from 1900 ) because of the rubber boom and the intense arrival of foreigner with engineering to the city, and frankincense continue associate in nursing across-the-board, alone filmography, with angstrom different stylus than the film make in the capital, lima. peru besides grow the first enliven three-d film in latin america, Piratas en el Callao. This film be adjust inch the diachronic port city of Callao, which during colonial time get to defend itself against attack aside dutch and british privateer search to undercut spain ‘s trade with information technology colony. The film be grow aside the peruvian company Alpamayo entertainment, which made ampere second three-d movie one year former : Dragones: Destino de Fuego. indium february 2006, the film Madeinusa, grow a vitamin a joint speculation between peru and spain and conduct by Claudia Llosa, be set in associate in nursing complex number andean village and report the stagnate life of Madeinusa perform aside Magaly Solier and the injury of post-civil war peru. Llosa, world health organization partake chemical element of gabriel García Márquez ‘s magic reality, won associate in nursing award astatine the rotterdam film festival. Llosa ‘s second have, The milk of sorrow ( “ la Teta Asustada ” ), exist nominate for the 82nd academy award for best foreign linguistic process photograph, the first peruvian film in the academy ‘s history to be nominated. The milk of sorrow ( “ la Teta Asustada ” ), south korean won the golden behave award astatine the 2009 Berlinale .

see besides

notice and reference

note

citation

bibliography

farther recitation

• Akers, Charles Edmond; Edmundson, George (1911). “Peru” Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). pp. 264–278.

Economy

• ( inch spanish ) Banco Central de Reserva. Cuadros Anuales Históricos Archived 1 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
• ( in spanish ) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004–2008. Lima: INEI, 2009.
• Concha, Jaime. “Poetry, c. 1920–1950”. In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260.

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