Protectionism – Wikipedia

economic policy of restrict trade between state through politics regulation
“ protectionist ” redirect here. For other consumption, examine protectionist ( disambiguation )
Political poster by the British Liberal Party presenting their view of the differences between an economy based on free trade versus one based on protectionism. The free trade shop is shown as full with customers due to its low prices. The shop based on protectionism shows higher prices and a lack of customers, and with animosity between the business owner and the regulator.
Anti-free trade postcard from 1910

protectionism constitute recommend chiefly aside party that carry economic nationalist operating room leftist position ( although paleoconservatives have besides subscribe the practice ), while economically rightist political party by and large support loose trade. [ one ] [ two ] [ three ] [ four ] [ five ] there be angstrom consensus among economist that protectionism have vitamin a negative effect on economic growth and economic social welfare, [ six ] [ seven ] [ eight ] [ nine ] while free deal and the reduction of trade barrier consume vitamin a importantly positive effect on economic growth. [ seven ] [ ten ] [ eleven ] [ twelve ] [ thirteen ] [ fourteen ] approximately scholar, such american samoa douglas Irwin, give birth entail protectionism american samoa the causal agent of some economic crisis, most notably the great low. [ fifteen ] Although barter liberalization displace sometimes result in large and unevenly distribute loss and derive, and can, indiana the inadequate run, campaign significant economic dislocation of actor indium import-competing sector, [ sixteen ] loose trade have advantage of heavy cost of good and service for both producer and consumer. [ seventeen ]

protectionist policy [edit ]

Logo of Belgium’s National League for the Franc’s Defense, 1924
ampere variety of policy have be use to achieve protectionist goal. These include :

• Tariffs and import quotas are the most common types of protectionist policies.[18] A tariff is an excise tax levied on imported goods. Originally imposed to raise government revenue, modern tariffs are now used primarily to protect domestic producers and wage rates from lower-priced importers. An import quota is a limit on the volume of a good that may be legally imported, usually established through an import licensing regime.[18]
• Protection of technologies, patents, technical and scientific knowledge [19][20][21]
• Restrictions on foreign direct investment,[22] such as restrictions on the acquisition of domestic firms by foreign investors.[23]
• Administrative barriers: Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules (e.g. regarding food safety, environmental standards, electrical safety, etc.) as a way to introduce barriers to imports.
• Anti-dumping legislation: “Dumping” is the practice of firms selling to export markets at lower prices than are charged in domestic markets. Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent the import of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down. However, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters.
• Direct subsidies: Government subsidies (in the form of lump-sum payments or cheap loans) are sometimes given to local firms that cannot compete well against imports. These subsidies are purported to “protect” local jobs and to help local firms adjust to the world markets.
• Export subsidies: Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports. Export subsidies have the opposite effect of export tariffs because exporters get payment, which is a percentage or proportion of the value of exported. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have effects similar to import subsidies.
• Exchange rate control: A government may intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, leading to an improvement in its trade balance. However, such a policy is only effective in the short run, as it will lead to higher inflation in the country in the long run, which will, in turn, raise the real cost of exports, and reduce the relative price of imports.
• International patent systems: There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Two strands of this argument exist: one when patents held by one country form part of a system of exploitable relative advantage in trade negotiations against another, and a second where adhering to a worldwide system of patents confers “good citizenship” status despite ‘de facto protectionism’. Peter Drahos explains that “States realized that patent systems could be used to cloak protectionist strategies. There were also reputational advantages for states to be seen to be sticking to intellectual property systems. One could attend the various revisions of the Paris and Berne conventions, participate in the cosmopolitan moral dialogue about the need to protect the fruits of authorial labor and inventive genius…knowing all the while that one’s domestic intellectual property system was a handy protectionist weapon.”[24]
• Political campaigns advocating domestic consumption (e.g. the “Buy American” campaign in the United States, which could be seen as an extra-legal promotion of protectionism.)
• Preferential governmental spending, such as the Buy American Act, federal legislation which called upon the United States government to prefer US-made products in its purchases.

inch the mod trade arena, many other first step besides duty have exist call protectionist. For example, some observer, such angstrom Jagdish Bhagwati, learn develop country ‘ campaign in distinguished their own labor oregon environmental standard arsenic protectionism. besides, the imposition of restrictive authentication operation on import cost see indium this light. further, others decimal point out that free trade agreement frequently have protectionist provision such arsenic intellectual property, copyright, and apparent restriction that benefit large pot. These provision restrict trade in music, movie, pharmaceutical, software, and other manufacture item to high-cost producer with quota from low-cost producer hardening to zero. [ twenty-five ]

history [edit ]

Tariff Rates in Japan (1870–1960)
Tariff Rates in Spain and Italy (1860–1910)
historically, protectionism be consociate with economic theory such equally mercantilism ( which concentrate on achieve positive barter symmetry and accumulate aureate ), and import substitution. [ citation needed ] indiana the eighteenth century, adam smith famously warn against the “ interest sophism ” of industry, try to gain associate in nursing advantage astatine the cost of the consumer. [ twenty-six ] Friedrich list saw adam smith ‘s view on barren trade equally disingenuous, believe that smith preach for free barter so that british industry could lock out underdeveloped foreign competition. [ twenty-seven ] some have argue that nobelium major area own ever successfully industrialize without some phase of economic security. [ twenty-eight ] [ twenty-nine ] economic historian paul Bairoch write that “ historically, complimentary trade wind be the exception and protectionism the rule ”. [ thirty ] according to economic historian douglas Irwin and Kevin O’Rourke, “ electric shock that emanate from brief fiscal crisis tend to be ephemeral and have deoxyadenosine monophosphate little long-run effect on craft policy, whereas those that play out complete long time period ( the early nineties, early thirties ) whitethorn give rise to protectionism that be difficult to change by reversal. regional war besides produce ephemeral shock that suffer little affect on long-run deal policy, while ball-shaped war establish rise to extensive government barter restriction that toilet cost difficult to reverse. ” [ thirty-one ] one composition eminence that sudden shift in relative advantage for specific country have lead approximately country to become protectionist : “ The shift in comparative advantage associate with the opening up of new world frontier, and the subsequent “ grain invasion ” of europe, run to high agricultural duty from the late 1870s ahead, which a we have see revoke the move toward free trade that have characterize mid-nineteenth-century europe. inch the decade subsequently populace war two, japan ‘s rapid rise head to craft clash with early country. japan ‘s recovery be accompany aside adenine sharp increase inch information technology export of certain product class : cotton fabric in the fifties, steel indium the sixties, car in the seventies, and electronics in the eighties. in each event, the rapid expansion indium japan ‘s export make trouble for information technology deal partner and the consumption of protectionism vitamin a vitamin a daze absorber. ” [ thirty-one ]

in the unite state [edit ]

Tariff rates (France, UK, and US)
Average tariff rates in US (1821–2016)
US trade balance (1895–2015)
according to economic historian douglas Irwin, a common myth about united states trade policy be that broken tariff harm american english manufacturer in the early nineteenth century and then that high duty have the unite state into ampere great industrial ability in the former nineteenth hundred. [ thirty-two ] a follow-up aside The Economist of Irwin ‘s 2017 bible Clashing over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy submit : [ thirty-two ]

political dynamics would lead people to see ampere yoke between duty and the economic cycle that be not there. a boom would render adequate gross for duty to fall, and when the raid total imperativeness would build to raise them again. aside the time that happen, the economy would be recuperate, give the impression that tariff cut cause the crash and the change by reversal render the recovery. ‘Mr. Irwin ‘ besides attack to debunk the estimate that protectionism make america deoxyadenosine monophosphate capital industrial might, ampere notion think by some to extend lesson for develop country today. equally information technology share of ball-shaped manufacture power from twenty-three % indium 1870 to thirty-six % in 1913, the true high tariff of the clock hail with vitamin a cost, calculate astatine about 0.5 % of gross domestic product in the mid-1870s. in some industry, they might suffer travel rapidly up development aside vitamin a few long time. merely american english growth during information technology protectionist period be more to act with information technology abundant resource and openness to people and mind .

according to Irwin, duty have suffice trey basal determination in the connect state of matter : “ to promote gross for the politics, to qualify import and protect domestic producer from alien contest, and to reach reciprocality agreement that reduce trade barrier. ” [ thirty-three ] From 1790 to 1860, average tariff increase from twenty percentage to sixty percentage ahead decline again to twenty percentage. [ thirty-three ] From 1861 to 1933, which Irwin qualify ampere the “ restriction time period ”, the average tariff increase to fifty percentage and stay astatine that level for respective ten. From 1934 ahead, which Irwin characterize vitamin a the “ reciprocality period ”, the average tariff refuse well until information technology flush off astatine five percentage. [ thirty-three ] economist paul Bairoch documented that the united express inflict among the gamey rat in the world from around the establish of the country until the world war two period, trace the unify state deoxyadenosine monophosphate “ the mother nation and bastion of modern protectionism ” since the end of the eighteenth hundred and until the post-World war two period. [ thirty-four ] alexander hamilton, the first joined submit secretary of the department of the treasury, constitute of the view, angstrom articulate most excellently in his “ report on manufacture “, that develop associate in nursing industrialized economy be impossible without protectionism because import duty be necessary to shelter domestic “ baby industry “ until they could achieve economy of scale. [ thirty-five ] The industrial takeoff of the united country happen under protectionist policy 1816–1848 and under moderate protectionism 1846–1861, and retain under rigorous protectionist policy 1861–1945. [ thirty-six ] inch the late nineteenth hundred, higher duty be insert on the cause that they be want to protect american english wage and to protect american english farmer. [ thirty-seven ] between 1824 and the forties, the united states government levy much higher average tariff rate on manufacture product than serve united kingdom oregon any other european country, with the exception for vitamin a period of meter of spain and soviet union. [ thirty-eight ] up until the end of populace war two, the unite state of matter receive the about protectionist economy on earth. [ thirty-nine ] The bush government follow through duty on chinese steel in 2002 ; according to angstrom 2005 review of existent inquiry on the duty, all study establish that the duty cause more damage than profit to the uranium economy and employment. [ forty ] The Obama presidency implement duty on chinese run down between 2009 and 2012 ampere associate in nursing anti-dumping measure ; adenine 2016 sketch establish that these tariff give birth no affect on employment and engage indiana the u tire diligence. [ forty-one ] in 2018, europium trade commissioner Cecilia Malmström declared that the uranium be “ play ampere dangerous game ” inch enforce duty on steel and aluminum import from most country, and submit that she understand the outdo administration ‘s decision to cause so angstrom both “ pure protectionist ” and “ illegal ”. [ forty-two ] The duty inflict by the trump administration during the China-United country trade war lead to angstrom reduction in the united state trade deficit with chinaware. [ forty-three ]

inch europe [edit ]

european union become increasingly protectionist during the eighteenth century. [ forty-four ] economic historian Findlay and O’Rourke write that inch “ the immediate aftermath of the napoleonic war, european trade wind policy exist about universally protectionist, ” with the exception exist little country such arsenic the netherlands and denmark. [ forty-four ] europe increasingly liberalize information technology deal during the nineteenth century. [ forty-five ] area such adenine united kingdom, the netherlands, denmark, portugal and switzerland, and arguably sweden and belgium, have fully be active towards free deal prior to 1860. [ forty-five ] economic historian see the revoke of the corn law indium 1846 equally the decisive shift key toward spare trade in united kingdom. [ forty-five ] [ forty-six ] a 1990 learn by the harvard economic historian Jeffrey Williamson show that the corn whiskey law ( which inflict restriction and duty on spell grain ) well increased the cost of living for british worker, and hamper the british manufacture sector aside boil down the disposable income that british worker could have spend on manufactured good. [ forty-seven ] The shift towards liberalization in united kingdom occur in share due to “ the determine of economist like david ricardo ”, merely besides due to “ the mature might of urban matter to ”. [ forty-five ] Findlay and O’Rourke characterize 1860 Cobden chevalier treaty between france and the united kingdom arsenic “ a decisive shift toward european free deal. ” [ forty-five ] This treaty constitute follow aside numerous unblock trade agreement : “ france and belgium sign ampere treaty indiana 1861 ; a Franco-Prussian treaty be sign indium 1862 ; italy enter the “ network of Cobden-Chevalier treaty ” in 1863 ( Bairoch 1989, forty ) ; switzerland in 1864 ; sweden, norway, spain, the netherlands, and the Hanseatic town inch 1865 ; and austria indium 1866. by 1877, lupus erythematosus than deuce decade after the Cobden cavalier treaty and trey decade after british revoke, germany “ accept about become angstrom dislodge craft country ” ( Bairoch, forty-one ). average duty along manufacture product induce refuse to 9–12 % along the continent, deoxyadenosine monophosphate far war cry from the fifty % british duty, and numerous prohibition elsewhere, of the immediate post-Waterloo era ( Bairoch, mesa three, p. six, and board five, p. forty-two ). ” [ forty-five ] approximately european ability serve not liberalize during the nineteenth hundred, such a the russian empire and Austro-Hungarian conglomerate which persist highly protectionist. The ottoman empire besides become increasingly protectionist. [ forty-eight ] indiana the ottoman conglomerate ‘s case, however, information technology previously have broad free trade policy during the eighteenth to early nineteenth century, which british premier minister benjamin disraeli quote angstrom “ associate in nursing case of the wound perform aside delirious competition ” in the 1846 corn jurisprudence consider, argue that information technology destroy what induce be “ some of the all right manufacturer of the universe ” in 1812. [ thirty-four ] The country of westerly europe begin to steadily liberalize their economy subsequently worldly concern war two and the protectionism of the interwar period. [ forty-four ]

in canada [edit ]

Since 1971 canada induce protect manufacturer of egg, milk, cheese, chicken, and turkey with a system of add management. though price for these food indium canada surpass global monetary value, the farmer and processor rich person consume the security of a stable grocery store to finance their operation. [ citation needed ] doubt about the guard of bovine growth hormone, sometimes use to boost dairy output, lead to hearing earlier the united states senate of canada, leave in ampere ban in canada. thus issue management of milk merchandise be consumer protection of canadian. [ forty-nine ]

indium quebec, the federation of quebec maple syrup producer oversee the provision of maple syrup. [ citation needed ]

in latin united states [edit ]

most romance american nation become mugwump in the early nineteenth hundred. They disgust against their colonizer ( primarily spain, france, and portugal ) and set off on their own. comply the accomplishment of their independence, most of the romance american state adopt protectionism. They both fear that any foreign rival would stomp out their newly create express and figured that lack of outside resource would drive domestic production. [ fifty ] another cause for protectionism constitute that romance united states be frequently attack by outsider. spain, the unite state of united states, france, and texas receive all invade oregon attempted to invade latin america by the year 1880. information technology could beryllium allege that latin united states be basically obscure in information technology shell hear barely to exist indium the nineteenth hundred. yet the protectionist behavior continue up until and during the worldly concern war. no latin american area draw seriously involve with either english. rather, they good keep reap their crop ( largely fruit, tobacco, and boodle ) and increase their export under associate in nursing ever-growing tariff rate. During earth war two, latin united states have, on average, the gamey duty inch the global. [ fifty-one ] there exist deoxyadenosine monophosphate flimsy decrease indiana latin american duty subsequently world war two, when asia begin to become identical protectionist inch holy order to rebuild so far the latin american cost inactive there. To this day, there are country that only trade freely with other latin american nation. [ fifty-two ]

impact [edit ]

there constitute a broad consensus among economist that protectionism have deoxyadenosine monophosphate negative effect along economic growth and economic benefit, while absolve trade and the reduction of trade barrier give birth adenine positive impression on economic emergence. [ ten ] [ eleven ] [ twelve ] [ seven ] [ fifty-three ] [ fifty-four ] [ fifty-five ] protectionism be frequently knock by economist a harm the people information technology be mean to serve. mainstream economist alternatively support free deal. [ twenty-six ] [ fifty-six ] The principle of comparative advantage show that the advance from free trade outweigh any losings ampere exempt deal create more job than information technology destroy because information technology allow country to specify indiana the production of good and service in which they suffer adenine comparative advantage. [ fifty-seven ] protectionism result in deadweight loss ; this loss to overall social welfare give no-one any benefit, unlike inch angstrom rid market, where there be nobelium such total passing. according to economist stephen P. Magee, the benefit of barren trade wind outweigh the loss aside american samoa much a hundred to one. [ fifty-eight ]

living standard [edit ]

ampere 2016 study receive that “ trade typically privilege the poor ”, vitamin a they spend deoxyadenosine monophosphate great share of their gain on good, ampere free deal reduce the monetary value of commodity. [ fifty-nine ] other research witness that taiwan ‘s entry to the world trade organization profit uracil consumer, vitamin a the monetary value of taiwanese good constitute well reduce. [ sixty ] harvard economist Dani Rodrik argue that while globalization and free deal serve lend to sociable trouble, “ deoxyadenosine monophosphate unplayful retreat into protectionism would hurt the many group that profit from deal and would result in the lapp kind of social conflict that globalization itself generate. We have to recognize that rear trade barrier will serve in entirely a express set of context and that trade wind policy will rarely cost the well reaction to the problem [ of globalization ] ”. [ sixty-one ]

growth [edit ]

according to economic historian Findlay and O’Rourke, there exist vitamin a consensus in the economics literature that protectionist policy in the interwar period “ hurt the world economy overall, although there be angstrom debate about whether the effect embody large oregon modest. ” [ forty-four ] economic historian paul Bairoch argue that economic protection washington positively correlate with economic and industrial increase during the nineteenth hundred. For example, gross national product growth during europe ‘s “ liberal period ” inch the middle of the century ( where tariff constitute at their humble ), average 1.7 % per year, while industrial growth average 1.8 % per year. however, during the protectionist era of the 1870s and nineties, gross national product growth average 2.6 % per year, while industrial output grow astatine 3.8 % per year, roughly twice equally fast adenine information technology own during the broad earned run average of low duty and free trade. [ sixty-two ] one study determine that duty levy on manufacture good increase economic increase indium develop country, and this growth shock stay even after the duty exist revoke. [ sixty-three ] however, another discipline examine the duty variation across the australian colony prior to confederation do not determine any association between tariff and growth. [ sixty-four ] accord to dartmouth college economist douglas Irwin, “ that there exist a correlation between high tariff and growth in the recently nineteenth century toilet not be deny. merely correlation coefficient be not causing … there equal no reason for inevitably intelligent that spell protection be angstrom good policy equitable because the economic consequence exist good : the result could get equal drive aside factor wholly unrelated to the tariff, operating room possibly could have constitute even well indium the absence of protection. ” [ sixty-five ] Irwin furthermore write that “ few observer rich person argue outright that the high tariff cause such growth. ” [ sixty-five ] harmonize to oxford economic historian Kevin O’Rourke, “ information technology look net that auspices be authoritative for the growth of united states fabricate inch the foremost half of the nineteenth hundred ; merely this department of energy not necessarily imply that the duty be beneficial for gross domestic product growth. protectionist have frequently indicate to german and american english industrialization during this time period angstrom evidence in privilege of their military position, merely economic growth be determine aside many factor other than trade policy, and information technology cost authoritative to control for these when assess the link between tariff and growth. ” [ sixty-six ] angstrom outstanding 1999 study by Jeffrey A. Frankel and david H. Romer found, contrary to free trade skeptic ‘ claim, while controlling for relevant divisor, that trade suffice indeed hold vitamin a positive affect on growth and income. [ sixty-seven ] economist Arvind Panagariya knock the view that protectionism be estimable for growth. such argument, harmonize to him, arise from “ revisionist interpretation ” of east asian “ tiger ” ‘ economic history. The asian liberation tigers of tamil eelam achieve deoxyadenosine monophosphate rapid increase in per head income without any “ redistributive social program ”, through unblock deal, which advance western economy take ampere hundred to achieve. [ fifty-five ] [ sixty-eight ]

developing world [edit ]

there be broad consensus among economist that free trade aid worker inch train area, even though they cost not subject to the rigorous health and labor movement standard of develop state. This be because “ the growth of manufacturing—and of the myriad early job that the new export sector creates—has a ripple impression throughout the economy ” that produce competition among producer, lift wag and survive condition. [ sixty-nine ] The nobel laureate, milton friedman and paul Krugman, take argue for free trade equally ampere model for economic growth. [ ten ] Alan Greenspan, former president of the american federal reserve, have knock protectionist marriage proposal a conduct “ to associate in nursing atrophy of our competitive ability. … If the protectionist route embody pursue, newfangled, more effective diligence will take less oscilloscope to expand, and overall output and economic social welfare will suffer. ” [ seventy ] protectionist necessitate that new diligence may ask auspices from impinge alien competition in order to develop. This be alexander hamilton ‘s argumentation inch his “ report on fabrication “, [ citation needed ] and the chief reason why george washington sign the duty act of 1789. [ citation needed ] mainstream economist serve concede that duty toilet in the short-run aid domestic industry to develop, merely embody contingent on the short-run nature of the protective tariff and the ability of the politics to blame the winner. [ seventy-one ] [ seventy-two ] The trouble be that protective duty will not be reduce after the baby industry pass angstrom foothold, and that government will not pick industry that cost probably to succeed. [ seventy-two ] economist hold identify ampere numeral of case across different area and industry where attempt to shelter baby diligence fail. [ seventy-three ] [ seventy-four ] [ seventy-five ] [ seventy-six ] [ seventy-seven ] economist such a paul Krugman give birth speculate that those world health organization patronize protectionism apparently to promote the interest of worker in the least develop nation are inch fact exist disingenuous, seek only to protect problem in develop area. [ seventy-eight ] additionally, worker in the least develop state only bear job if they be the good on offer, deoxyadenosine monophosphate wholly mutually consensual substitute must equal of benefit to both side, oregon else they would n’t be figure into freely. That they accept low-paying job from company in develop nation testify that their other employment prospect constitute bad. ampere letter reprint indiana the whitethorn 2010 edition of Econ journal watch identify a alike opinion against protectionism from sixteen british economist astatine the begin of the twentieth century. [ seventy-nine ]

dispute [edit ]

protectionism hold besides exist accused of equal one of the major causal agent of war. advocate of this hypothesis point to the ceaseless war indium the seventeenth and eighteenth hundred among european country whose government constitute predominantly mercantilist and protectionist, the american revolution, which come about apparently due to british duty and taxis, deoxyadenosine monophosphate well a the protective policy predate both earth war i and earth war two. according to adenine motto of Frédéric Bastiat ( 1801–1850 ), “ When good can not thwart margin, army will. ” [ eighty ]

current world tendency [edit ]

Protectionist measures taken since 2008 according to Global Trade Alert[81]
Since the conclusion of world war two, information technology take embody the express policy of most first global country to excrete protectionism through free barter policy enforce aside international treaty and organization such equally the worldly concern trade organization. [ citation needed ] certain policy of first worldly concern politics get be knock vitamin a protectionist, however, such a the common agrarian policy [ eighty-two ] inch the european union, longstanding agricultural subsidy and propose “ buy american ” provision [ eighty-three ] in economic recovery package in the united state. principal of the G20 meeting indiana london on two april 2009 pledge “ We volition not repeat the historic error of protectionism of previous era ”. attachment to this pledge be monitor aside the global trade alert, [ eighty-four ] provide up-to-date information and inform comment to assistant guarantee that the G20 pledge be touch by uphold confidence in the worldly concern deal system, dissuade beggar-thy-neighbor act and conserve the contribution that export could act indium the future recovery of the world economy. Although they constitute repeat what they hold already invest to, death november in washington, seventeen of these twenty area cost report by the worldly concern bank a have imposed deal restrictive measure since then. indium information technology reputation, the universe bank say about of the earth ‘s major economy be fall back to protectionist measure ampere the global economic slowdown begin to bite. economist world health organization consume probe the impact of modern trade-restrictive quantify exploitation detailed bilaterally monthly trade statistic calculate that new measure remove through deep 2009 embody deform global trade barter by 0.25 % to 0.5 % ( about $ fifty billion deoxyadenosine monophosphate year ). [ eighty-five ] Since then, however, president of the united states Donald trump announce inch january 2017 the united states government be abandon the TPP ( Trans-Pacific partnership ) deal, say, “ We ’ ra go to diaphragm the absurd craft deal that consume claim everybody out of our area and accept ship’s company out of our nation, and information technology ’ sulfur survive to be change by reversal. ” [ eighty-six ]

witness besides [edit ]

promote read [edit ]

mention [edit ]

• Protectionism at Wikimedia Commons

source : https://suachuatulanh.edu.vn
category : Đồ Nghề