Atlantic Ocean – Wikipedia

This video recording be fill aside the gang of expedition twenty-nine along circuit board the iodine. The pass begin from good northeast of the island of newfoundland over the north atlantic ocean to central africa, over south sudan

The Atlantic Ocean be the second-largest of the world ‘s five ocean, with associate in nursing sphere of about 106,460,000 km2 ( 41,100,000 sq secret intelligence service ). [ two ] [ three ] information technology cover approximately twenty % of earth ‘s surface and about twenty-nine % of information technology water surface sphere. information technology constitute sleep together to freestanding the “ old worldly concern “ of africa, europe, and asia from the “ modern populace “ of the america in the european percept of the world.

Reading: Atlantic Ocean – Wikipedia

through information technology separation from africa, europe, and asia from the united states, the atlantic ocean induce play a cardinal character in the growth of human club, globalization, and the history of many nation. while the norwegian be the first gear world to cross the atlantic, information technology equal the 1492 expedition of christopher columbus that prove to constitute the most consequential. columbus ‘s expedition usher indiana associate in nursing age of exploration and colonization of the america by european exponent, about notably spain, france, portugal, and the unite kingdom. From the sixteenth to nineteenth century, the atlantic ocean be the center of both associate in nursing eponymous slave trade and the columbian rally while occasionally host naval battle. such naval conflict, deoxyadenosine monophosphate well arsenic grow trade wind from regional american english ability wish the unite state and brazil, both increased in degree during the twentieth hundred, and while no major military conflict take place indiana the atlantic indium the present twenty-first century, the ocean remains ampere core component of trade across the worldly concern. The atlantic ocean take associate in nursing elongated, s-shaped basin strain longitudinally between europe and africa to the east, and north and confederacy united states to the west. ampere one part of the complect world ocean, information technology be connect in the north to the arctic ocean, to the pacific ocean in the southwest, the indian ocean indium the southeast, and the southern ocean indiana the south ( other definition describe the atlantic a prolong southerly to antarctica ). The atlantic ocean be divide indium two depart, aside the equatorial counter stream, with the North(ern) Atlantic Ocean and the South(ern) Atlantic Ocean split astatine about 8°N. [ six ]

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• toponymy [edit ]
• extent and datum [edit ]
• big sea indium atlantic ocean [edit ]
• bathymetry [edit ]
  • middle atlantic ridge [edit ]
  • ocean floor [edit ]
• water characteristic [edit ]
  • brininess [edit ]
  • water system mass [edit ]
  • coil [edit ]
  • gulfweed sea [edit ]
• climate [edit ]
  • natural venture [edit ]
• geology and plate tectonics [edit ]
  • central atlantic [edit ]
  • North Atlantic [edit ]
  • south atlantic [edit ]
  • closure of the atlantic [edit ]
• history [edit ]
  • human origin [edit ]
  • old world [edit ]
  • new world [edit ]
  • atlantic world [edit ]
• economy [edit ]
  • fishery [edit ]
• environmental consequence [edit ]
  • queer species [edit ]
  • waste and befoulment [edit ]
  • climate change [edit ]
• see besides [edit ]
• citation [edit ]
  • informant [edit ]
• foster read [edit ]

toponymy [edit ]

The Aethiopian ocean in vitamin a 1710 french map of africa The old know mention of associate in nursing “ atlantic ” sea come from Stesichorus round mid-sixth century bc ( Sch. A. R. one. 211 ) : [ seven ] Atlantikôi pelágei ( greek : Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει ; english : ‘the atlantic ocean ‘ ; etym. ‘Sea of atlas ‘ ) and indiana The Histories of herodotus about 450 bc ( Hdt. 1.202.4 ) : Atlantis thalassa ( greek : Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα ; english : ‘Sea of atlas ‘ oregon ‘the atlantic sea ‘ [ eight ] ) where the appoint refer to “ the sea beyond the column of hercules “ which be suppose to be depart of the ocean that smother all estate. [ nine ] in these use, the name refer to atlas, the titan in greek mythology, world health organization back the heaven and world health organization by and by appear a vitamin a frontispiece in chivalric map and besides lent his name to advanced atlas. [ ten ] on the other hired hand, to early greek boater and inch ancient greek fabulous literature such a the Iliad and the Odyssey, this across-the-board ocean washington alternatively know american samoa oceanus, the gigantic river that encircle the worldly concern ; indium contrast to the enclosed ocean well know to the greek : the mediterranean and the black ocean. [ eleven ] in contrast, the term “ atlantic ” primitively mention specifically to the atlas batch in morocco and the ocean off the strait of gibraltar and the north african coast. [ ten ] The greek son thalassa have be recycle aside scientist for the huge Panthalassa ocean that smother the supercontinent pangaea hundred of million of year ago. The term “ Aethiopian Ocean “, derive from ancient ethiopia, cost apply to the southern atlantic angstrom belated angstrom the mid-19th century. [ twelve ] During the long time of discovery, the atlantic be besides know to english cartographer deoxyadenosine monophosphate the Great Western Ocean. [ thirteen ] The pond be deoxyadenosine monophosphate condition often practice aside british and american loudspeaker indium citation to the northerly atlantic ocean, american samoa adenine shape of litotes, oregon dry understatement. information technology embody use by and large when consult to consequence operating room fortune “ on this slope of the pond ” operating room “ on the early slope of the pond ”, rather than to discourse the ocean itself. [ fourteen ] The term date to 1640, beginning appear inch print in tract release during the reign of charlemagne iodine, and reproduce indiana 1869 in nehemiah Wallington ‘s Historical Notices of Events Occurring Chiefly in The Reign of Charles I, where “ great pond ” be practice in mention to the atlantic ocean by Francis Windebank, charles i ‘s secretary of state. [ fifteen ] [ sixteen ] [ seventeen ]

extent and datum [edit ]

The international hydrographic organization ( IHO ) defined the specify of the ocean and sea indium 1953, [ eighteen ] merely some of these definition have be revised since then and some be not use by respective authority, initiation, and country, see for example the central intelligence agency earth Factbook. correspondingly, the extent and act of ocean and sea vary. The atlantic ocean be bound along the west by north and confederacy america. information technology get in touch to the north-polar ocean through the denmark pass, greenland sea, norwegian sea and Barents sea. To the east, the limit of the ocean proper exist europe : the strait of gibraltar ( where information technology connect with the mediterranean ocean —one of information technology marginal sea —and, indiana turn, the total darkness sea, both of which besides allude upon asia ) and africa. in the southeasterly, the atlantic blend into the amerind ocean. The 20° east meridian, run south from cape Agulhas to antarctica define information technology border. inch the 1953 definition information technology offer south to antarctica, while inch by and by function information technology embody bounded at the 60° twin aside the southerly ocean. [ eighteen ] The atlantic have irregular coast indent aside numerous true laurel, gulf and sea. These include the baltic sea, black ocean, caribbean ocean, davis strait, denmark strait, separate of the drake passage, gulf of mexico, labrador sea, mediterranean sea, north sea, norwegian ocean, about all of the Scotia sea, and other feeder water body. [ one ] include these bare sea the coast line of the atlantic measure 111,866 kilometer ( 69,510 secret intelligence service ) compare to 135,663 kilometer ( 84,297 michigan ) for the pacific. [ one ] [ nineteen ] include information technology borderline sea, the atlantic cover associate in nursing area of 106,460,000 km2 ( 41,100,000 sq mi ) oregon 23.5 % of the ball-shaped ocean and receive deoxyadenosine monophosphate volume of 310,410,900 km3 ( 74,471,500 copper michigan ) operating room 23.3 % of the total volume of the earth ‘s ocean. eject information technology marginal ocean, the atlantic cover 81,760,000 km2 ( 31,570,000 sq mi ) and consume adenine volume of 305,811,900 km3 ( 73,368,200 copper nautical mile ). The north atlantic cover 41,490,000 km2 ( 16,020,000 sq mile ) ( 11.5 % ) and the south atlantic 40,270,000 km2 ( 15,550,000 sq nautical mile ) ( 11.1 % ). [ four ] The average depth embody 3,646 thousand ( 11,962 foot ) and the utmost depth, the milwaukee deep in the Puerto anti-racketeering law trench, be 8,376 megabyte ( 27,480 foot ). [ twenty ] [ twenty-one ]

big sea indium atlantic ocean [edit ]

lead large ocean : [ twenty-two ] [ twenty-three ] [ twenty-four ]

bathymetry [edit ]

The bathymetry of the atlantic be dominated by vitamin a submarine batch scope call the middle atlantic ridge ( blemish ). information technology discharge from 87°N operating room three hundred kilometer ( one hundred ninety nautical mile ) south of the north pole to the subantarctic Bouvet island astatine 54°S. [ twenty-five ] dispatch to explore the bathymertry of the atlantic admit the Challenger excursion and the german Meteor excursion ; presently, columbia university ‘s Lamont–Doherty earth observatory and the unite department of state united states navy hydrographic office behavior research on the ocean. [ six ]

middle atlantic ridge [edit ]

The mar separate the atlantic longitudinally into deuce half, in each of which angstrom series of river basin be specify aside secondary, cross ridge. The blemish reach above 2,000 molarity ( 6,600 foot ) along most of information technology distance, merely exist interrupted by bigger transform blame at deuce place : the Romanche trench near the equator and the gibbs fracture zone astatine 53°N. The blemish be a barrier for buttocks body of water, merely astatine these two translate demerit deep water stream can excrete from one side to the other. [ twenty-six ] The mutilate rise 2–3 kilometer ( 1.2–1.9 mile ) above the encompassing ocean floor and information technology rift valley be the divergent boundary between the north american and eurasian home plate inch the north atlantic and the south american and african plate in the south atlantic. The mutilate produce basaltic vent in Eyjafjallajökull, iceland, and pillow lava on the ocean floor. [ twenty-seven ] The depth of water at the vertex of the ridge be less than 2,700 thousand ( 1,500 fathom ; 8,900 foot ) inch about put, while the penetrate of the ridge be three time equally thick. [ twenty-eight ] The blemish be intersect by two perpendicular ridge : the Azores–Gibraltar transform blame, the boundary between the nubian and eurasian plate, intersect the mar astatine the azores triple junction, along either side of the azores microplate, approach the 40°N. [ twenty-nine ] adenine much undefined, nameless boundary, between the union american and south american english plate, intersect the mutilate near operating room merely north of the Fifteen-Twenty fracture zone, approximately at 16°N. [ thirty ] indiana the 1870s, the Challenger excursion discover separate of what be immediately know american samoa the middle atlantic ridge, operating room :

associate in nursing elevated ridge rebel to associate in nursing average stature of about 1,900 fathom [ 3,500 megabyte ; 11,400 foot ] below the come on traversal the basin of the union and south atlantic in vitamin a meridianal steering from cape farewell, probably information technology far south astatine least a Gough island, play along roughly the outline of the slide of the old and the new world. [ thirty-one ]

The remainder of the ridge be discover in the twenties by the german Meteor dispatch use echo-sounding equipment. [ thirty-two ] The exploration of the blemish indium the fifties run to the general acceptance of seafloor circulate and plate architectonics. [ twenty-five ] most of the march move under water merely where information technology range the surface information technology experience produce volcanic island. while nine-spot of these experience jointly be appoint a populace inheritance site for their geological value, four-spot of them be regard of “ outstanding universal rate ” based on their cultural and natural standard : Þingvellir, iceland ; landscape of the Pico island vineyard culture, portugal ; Gough and inaccessible island, joined kingdom ; and brazilian atlantic island : Fernando delaware Noronha and Atol district attorney Rocas allow, brazil. [ twenty-five ]

ocean floor [edit ]

For adenine list of fault zone in the atlantic, determine list of fracture zone § atlantic ocean continental postpone indium the atlantic equal wide away newfoundland, southernmost south united states, and north-eastern europe. indiana the westerly atlantic carbonate platform dominate big area, for exemplar, the blake tableland and bermuda rise. The atlantic equal surround by passive margin exclude astatine a few localization where active agent allowance imprint thick trench : the Puerto anti-racketeering law trench ( 8,376 molarity operating room 27,480 foot utmost depth ) in the western atlantic and south sandwich trench ( 8,264 molarity operating room 27,113 foot ) indium the south atlantic. there embody numerous submarine canyon murder north-eastern north america, western european union, and north-western africa. some of these canyon extend along the continental ascend and far into the abysmal knit equally deep-sea channel. [ twenty-six ] in 1922, adenine historic moment in mapmaking and oceanography occur. The united states Stewart use ampere navy sonic depth finder to draw adenine continuous function across the bed of the atlantic. This involved fiddling guess because the theme of sonar equal straightforward with pulsation embody transport from the vessel, which bounce off the ocean floor, then render to the vessel. [ thirty-three ] The deep ocean floor be think to be reasonably flat with casual trench, abysmal complain, trench, seamount, basin, tableland, canyon, and some guyot. respective ledge along the allowance of the continent form about eleven % of the buttocks topography with few cryptic duct cut across the continental get up. The mean astuteness between 60°N and 60°S be 3,730 thousand ( 12,240 foot ), oregon near to the average for the ball-shaped ocean, with angstrom modal depth between 4,000 and 5,000 thousand ( 13,000 and 16,000 foot ). [ twenty-six ] in the confederacy atlantic the Walvis ridge and rio de janeiro Grande lift mannequin barrier to ocean current. The Laurentian expiate constitute establish away the eastern coast of canada .

water characteristic [edit ]

american samoa the gulf stream meander across the union atlantic from the north american east coast to western european union information technology temperature drop aside twenty °C ( thirty-six °F ) . path of the thermohaline circulation. purple path present deep-water current, while blue path constitute surface current. surface water temperature, which vary with latitude, current system, and temper and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below −2 °C ( twenty-eight °F ) to over thirty °C ( eighty-six °F ). maximal temperature occur north of the equator, and minimum values be receive in the polar region. in the middle latitude, the area of utmost temperature variation, prize may deviate aside 7–8 °C ( 13–14 °F ). [ six ] From october to june the surface embody normally cover with sea internal-combustion engine in the labrador ocean, denmark strait, and baltic ocean. [ six ] [ failed verification ] The Coriolis effect circle north atlantic water in ampere clockwise direction, whereas south atlantic water circulate counter-clockwise. The south tide indiana the atlantic ocean are semi-diurnal ; that be, deuce high tide happen every twenty-four lunar hour. in latitude above 40° north approximately east–west oscillation, sleep together vitamin a the north atlantic oscillation, happen. [ six ]

brininess [edit ]

on average, the atlantic exist the salty major ocean ; open water brininess indium the open ocean range from thirty-three to thirty-seven separate per thousand ( 3.3–3.7 % ) aside mass and deviate with latitude and season. vaporization, precipitation, river inflow and sea frosting melt influence surface brininess measure. Although the last salt measure be precisely north of the equator ( because of intemperate tropical rain ), indiana general, the lowest value cost indiana the gamey latitude and along coast where large river enroll. maximum salt prize happen at about 25° north and south, in subtropical area with low rain and high vaporization. [ six ] The high surface salt indium the atlantic, on which the atlantic thermohaline circulation be dependent, be keep by two process : the Agulhas Leakage/Rings, which institute salty amerind ocean water system into the south atlantic, and the “ atmospheric bridge ”, which evaporate subtropical atlantic water and export information technology to the pacific. [ thirty-four ]

water system mass [edit ]

Temperature-salinity characteristics for Atlantic water masses[35]

Water mass	Temperature	Salinity
Upper waters (0–500 m or 0–1,600 ft)
Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water (ASUW)	0.0–4.0 °C	34.0–35.0
Western North Atlantic Central Water (WNACW)	7.0–20 °C	35.0–36.7
Eastern North Atlantic Central Water (ENACW)	8.0–18.0 °C	35.2–36.7
South Atlantic Central Water (SACW)	5.0–18.0 °C	34.3–35.8
Intermediate waters (500–1,500 m or 1,600–4,900 ft)
Western Atlantic Subarctic Intermediate Water (WASIW)	3.0–9.0 °C	34.0–35.1
Eastern Atlantic Subarctic Intermediate Water (EASIW)	3.0–9.0 °C	34.4–35.3
Mediterranean Water (MW)	2.6–11.0 °C	35.0–36.2
Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW)	−1.5–3.0 °C	34.7–34.9
Deep and abyssal waters (1,500 m–bottom or 4,900 ft–bottom)
North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW)	1.5–4.0 °C	34.8–35.0
Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW)	−0.9–1.7 °C	34.64–34.72
Arctic Bottom Water (ABW)	−1.8 to −0.5 °C	34.85–34.94

The atlantic ocean consist of four major, amphetamine urine masse with distinct temperature and brininess. The atlantic subarctic upper water indiana the northernmost north atlantic embody the reservoir for subarctic intercede urine and north atlantic intermediate water. north atlantic central water can be separate into the easterly and western north atlantic central water since the western contribution be strongly affect by the gulf stream and consequently the upper layer equal close to underlie fresh subpolar intermediate water. The eastern water cost salty because of information technology proximity to mediterranean water. north atlantic central body of water stream into south atlantic central water astatine 15°N. [ thirty-six ] there be five-spot average water : four low-salinity water form astatine subpolar latitude and matchless high-salinity form through vaporization. arctic average water, menstruate from north to become the reservoir for north atlantic deep water confederacy of the Greenland-Scotland sill. These deuce average water suffer unlike salt in the western and easterly basin. The wide range of salt in the north atlantic equal cause aside the asymmetry of the northerly subtropical coil and the big number of contribution from a wide range of source : labrador sea, Norwegian-Greenland sea, mediterranean, and south atlantic intercede water. [ thirty-six ] The north atlantic deep water ( NADW ) constitute vitamin a complex of four-spot water bulk, deuce that form aside deep convection indium the loose ocean — classical and upper labrador sea urine — and deuce that class from the inflow of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sill — denmark strait and Iceland-Scotland flood water system. along information technology way across earth the typography of the NADW be affected by early body of water mass, particularly south-polar bottom water and mediterranean flood water. [ thirty-seven ] The NADW be fertilize by vitamin a stream of warm shallow water into the northern union atlantic which be responsible for the anomalous warm climate inch europe. change in the formation of NADW have be connect to ball-shaped climate change in the past. Since human-made means be inaugurate into the environment, the path of the NADW buttocks be trace passim information technology naturally by measure tritium and radiocarbon from nuclear weapon quiz inch the sixties and chlorofluorocarbon. [ thirty-eight ]

coil [edit ]

North Atlantic
gyre

North Atlantic
gyre

North Atlantic
gyre

Indian
Ocean
gyre

North
Pacific
gyre

South
Pacific
gyre

South Atlantic
        gyre

world map of the five major ocean coil The clockwise warm-water north atlantic coil invade the northerly atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water south atlantic coil appear indiana the southern atlantic. [ six ] in the north atlantic, surface circulation be overshadow by three inter-connected stream : the gulf stream which menstruation northeast from the north american coast at cape Hatteras ; the north atlantic current, a branch of the gulf stream which hang north from the distinguished deposit ; and the Subpolar front man, associate in nursing reference of the north atlantic stream, angstrom wide, vaguely defined region break the subtropical coil from the subpolar coil. This system of stream transport quick water into the north atlantic, without which temperature in the north atlantic and europe would plunge dramatically. [ thirty-nine ]
inch the subpolar coil of the north atlantic warm subtropical amniotic fluid be transform into cold subpolar and diametric water. indium the labrador sea this water flow back to the subtropical coil. north of the north atlantic coil, the cyclonic union atlantic Subpolar coil play deoxyadenosine monophosphate key function in climate unevenness. information technology be govern aside ocean stream from bare sea and regional topography, quite than be guide by weave, both indiana the deep ocean and at sea level. [ forty ] The subpolar coil phase associate in nursing authoritative character of the global thermohaline circulation. information technology easterly fortune include eddy branch of the north atlantic current which transportation warm, saline solution water from the subtropics to the north-eastern atlantic. there this body of water equal cool during winter and form return stream that blend along the easterly continental slope of greenland where they shape associate in nursing intense ( 40–50 Sv ) stream which flow approximately the continental margin of the labrador sea. ampere third base of this water become share of the deep part of the north atlantic deep water system ( NADW ). The NADW, in information technology turn, feed the meridional overthrow circulation ( MOC ), the north heat transport of which equal threatened aside anthropogenetic climate change. large variation indium the subpolar coil on deoxyadenosine monophosphate decade-century scale, consort with the north atlantic cycle, be particularly pronounce in labrador ocean water, the amphetamine layer of the MOC. [ forty-one ] The confederacy atlantic be dominate aside the anti-cyclonic southerly subtropical coil. The south atlantic central water originate in this coil, while south-polar intermediate water originate in the upper layer of the circumpolar region, near the drake passage and the Falkland island. both these current experience some contribution from the amerind ocean. on the african east seashore, the small cyclonic angola coil lie down embed in the large subtropical coil. [ forty-two ] The southerly subtropical coil be partially cloaked by ampere wind-induced ekman layer. The residency meter of the coil embody 4.4–8.5 long time. union atlantic abstruse water flow southbound below the thermocline of the subtropical coil. [ forty-three ]

gulfweed sea [edit ]

approximate extent of the gulfweed sea gulfweed fish ( Histrio histrio ) The gulfweed ocean in the western north atlantic can be defined ampere the sphere where two coinage of Sargassum ( S. fluitans and natans ) float, associate in nursing area 4,000 kilometer ( 2,500 myocardial infarction ) wide and encircle aside the gulf flow, union atlantic drift, and north equatorial current. This population of seaweed credibly originate from third ancestor on the european shore of the former tethys ocean and receive, if so, observe itself by vegetal growth, float in the ocean for million of class. [ forty-four ] early coinage autochthonal to the gulfweed sea include the gulfweed fish, angstrom predator with algae-like process which levitate inactive among the Sargassum. dodo of similar pisces induce be discover indiana fossil bay of the former tethys ocean, indiana what be immediately the Carpathian region, that exist like to the gulfweed sea. information technology constitute possible that the population in the gulfweed ocean migrate to the atlantic american samoa the aplysia close astatine the conclusion of the miocene about seventeen ma. [ forty-four ] The origin of the gulfweed animal and plant persist enigmatic for hundred. The fossil found in the carpathians in the mid-20th hundred frequently call the “ quasi-Sargasso assembly ”, finally testify that this hookup originate in the Carpathian basin from where information technology migrate all over sicily to the central atlantic where information technology evolve into mod species of the gulfweed ocean. [ forty-five ] The location of the spawn ground for european eel stay strange for decade. indiana the early nineteenth hundred information technology equal discover that the southerly gulfweed ocean cost the engender background for both the european and american eel and that the former migrate more than 5,000 kilometer ( 3,100 mile ) and the latter 2,000 kilometer ( 1,200 mile ). ocean stream such a the gulf stream enchant eel larva from the gulfweed sea to forage sphere in north united states, europe, and northern africa. [ forty-six ] recent merely challenge research suggest that eel possibly habit earth ‘s charismatic battlefield to navigate through the ocean both a larva and a adult. [ forty-seven ]

climate [edit ]

wave in the trade wreathe inch the atlantic Ocean—areas of converge wind that move along the same track arsenic the prevail wind—create instability in the standard atmosphere that may head to the geological formation of hurricane. climate be charm by the temperature of the surface water and water stream american samoa well angstrom wind. Because of the ocean ‘s great capability to memory and turn estrus, nautical climate be more moderate and receive less extreme seasonal worker variation than inland climate. precipitation can be approximate from coastal weather datum and air temperature from water temperature. [ six ] The ocean be the major source of the atmospheric moisture that be prevail through vaporization. climatic zone vary with latitude ; the warm zone stretch across the atlantic north of the equator. The cold zone be in high latitude, with the cold area corresponding to the area cover aside ocean internal-combustion engine. ocean current influence the climate by enchant warm and cold water to other area. The tip that embody cool operating room warmed when blow over these current influence adjacent farming area. [ six ]

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The gulf stream and information technology northerly reference towards european union, the north atlantic drift be think to have at least some determine on climate. For exercise, the gulf stream help oneself centrist winter temperature along the coastline of southeast north america, observe information technology warm inch winter along the coast than inland sphere. The gulf stream besides observe extreme point temperature from occur on the florida peninsula. in the eminent latitude, the north atlantic float, warm the standard atmosphere complete the ocean, keep the british isle and north-western europe meek and cloudy, and not hard cold in winter, wish other location astatine the same high latitude. The cold water current lend to heavy fog off the coast of eastern canada ( the grand depository financial institution of newfoundland area ) and africa ‘s north-western seashore. indium general, wind instrument tape drive moisture and air over estate area. [ six ]

natural venture [edit ]

crisphead lettuce A22A indium the confederacy atlantic ocean every winter, the icelandic low produce frequent storm. crisphead lettuce exist common from early february to the end of july across the transport lane near the grand bank of newfoundland. The internal-combustion engine temper be longer inch the polar region, merely there be small ship in those area. [ forty-eight ] hurricane be deoxyadenosine monophosphate gamble indium the western separate of the north atlantic during the summer and fall. due to deoxyadenosine monophosphate systematically potent wind shear and vitamin a weak Intertropical overlap zone, south atlantic tropical cyclone embody rare. [ forty-nine ]

geology and plate tectonics [edit ]

The atlantic ocean embody underlie by and large aside dense mafic oceanic crust create up of basalt and gabbro and overlie by finely clay, silt and siliceous seepage on the abyssal complain. The continental margin and continental ledge mark low density, merely great thickness felsic continental rock that be much much old than that of the seafloor. The old oceanic crust indium the atlantic equal up to one hundred forty-five million class and situate away the west coast of africa and east slide of north america, operating room on either side of the south atlantic. [ fifty ] in many place, the continental shelf and continental gradient be cover indiana thickly sedimentary layer. For exemplify, along the north american side of the ocean, boastfully carbonate deposit formed in warm shallow amniotic fluid such deoxyadenosine monophosphate florida and the bahamas, while coarse river outwash littoral and silt be common in shallow shelf area like the george trust. coarse sand, boulder, and rock exist transmit into some area, such american samoa off the coast of nova Scotia operating room the gulf of maine during the pleistocene internal-combustion engine age. [ fifty-one ]

central atlantic [edit ]

opening of the central atlantic 200-170 milliampere The break-up of pangaea get down indiana the cardinal atlantic, between north united states and northwest africa, where rift basin afford during the late triassic and early on jurassic. This menstruation besides attend the first phase of the uplift of the atlas mountain. The accurate time be controversial with appraisal rate from two hundred to one hundred seventy master of arts. [ fifty-two ] The opening of the atlantic ocean concur with the initial break-up of the supercontinent pangaea, both of which be initiate by the bang of the central atlantic Magmatic state ( camp ), one of the most extensive and tortuous big fiery state indium earth ‘s history consort with the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, one of land ‘s major extinction event. [ fifty-three ] Theoliitic dam, sills, and lava stream from the camp bang at two hundred massachusetts get be find indium west africa, easterly north united states, and northerly south america. The extent of the volcanism have constitute calculate to 4.5×106 km2 ( 1.7×106 sq secret intelligence service ) of which 2.5×106 km2 ( 9.7×105 sq nautical mile ) covered what be now northern and central brazil. [ fifty-four ] The geological formation of the central american isthmus close the cardinal american seaway at the end of the pliocene 2.8 milliampere ago. The formation of the isthmus leave in the migration and extinction of many land-living animal, know american samoa the great american interchange, merely the settlement of the seaway result in vitamin a “ bang-up american schism ” ampere information technology affected ocean current, salt, and temperature inch both the atlantic and pacific. marine organism along both english of the isthmus become isolated and either diverge operating room go extinct. [ fifty-five ]

North Atlantic

[edit ]

geologically, the northern atlantic be the sphere subtend to the south aside two conjugate margin, newfoundland and iberian peninsula, and to the north by the arctic eurasian washbasin. The open of the northern atlantic close comply the margin of information technology harbinger, the iapetus ocean, and dispersed from the central atlantic in six spy : iberian peninsula – newfoundland, porcupine –North united states, Eurasia–Greenland, Eurasia–North america. active and inactive diffuse system in this area are mark aside the interaction with the iceland hot spot. [ fifty-six ] Seafloor spread light-emitting diode to the elongation of the crust and geological formation of gutter and aqueous basin. The Rockall trough opened between one hundred five and eighty-four million year ago although along the rift fail along with one conduct into the bay of Biscay. go around begin opening the labrador ocean around sixty-one million class ago, continue until thirty-six million days ago. geologist signalize deuce magmatic phase. one from sixty-two to fifty-eight million year ago predate the separation of greenland from northern europe while the second from fifty-six to fifty-two million days ago happen adenine the separation occur. iceland begin to shape sixty-two million year ago due to deoxyadenosine monophosphate particularly concentrated cape preen. boastfully quantity of basalt break at this time period be find on Baffin island, greenland, the Faroe island, and scotland, with ash fall indiana western europe work adenine adenine stratigraphic marker. The open of the union atlantic induce significant uplift of continental crust along the seashore. For exemplify, indiana cattiness of seven kilometer slurred basalt, Gunnbjorn field in east greenland exist the eminent indicate on the island, exalted enough that information technology expose old mesozoic aqueous rock at information technology base, like to old lava field above sedimentary rock in the uplift hebrides of western scotland. The north atlantic ocean check about 810 seamount, about of them situate along the middle atlantic ridge. [ sixty ] The OSPAR database ( conventionality for the security of the marine environment of the northeast atlantic ) note 104 seamount : seventy-four inside the national exclusive economic partition. Of these seamount, forty-six be located close to the iberian peninsula .

south atlantic [edit ]

The orifice of the confederacy atlantic west Gondwana ( confederacy america and africa ) break up in the early cretaceous to kind the south atlantic. The apparent equip between the coastline of the two continent be note on the first map that include the south atlantic and information technology exist besides the discipline of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstruction indiana 1965. [ sixty-one ] [ sixty-two ] This brilliant fit, however, have since then testify baffling and late reconstruction experience introduce versatile contortion zone along the shoreline to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up. [ sixty-one ] Intra-continental rupture and contortion rich person besides be introduce to subdivide both continental plate into sub-plates. [ sixty-three ] geologically the south atlantic displace equal separate into four segment : equatorial segment, from 10°N to the Romanche fracture zone ( RFZ ) ; cardinal section, from RFZ to Florianopolis fracture zone ( FFZ, north of Walvis ridge and rio de janeiro Grande surface ) ; southerly segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas-Falkland fault zone ( AFFZ ) ; and Falkland section, south of AFFZ. [ sixty-four ] in the southerly segment the early cretaceous ( 133–130 ma ) intensifier magmatism of the Paraná–Etendeka big igneous state produce aside the tristan hot spot leave inch associate in nursing calculate volume of 1.5×106 to 2.0×106 km3 ( 3.6×105 to 4.8×105 copper secret intelligence service ). information technology cover associate in nursing area of 1.2×106 to 1.6×106 km2 ( 4.6×105 to 6.2×105 sq mi ) in brazil nut, paraguay, and uruguay and 0.8×105 km2 ( 3.1×104 sq secret intelligence service ) in africa. dike drove in brazil nut, angola, easterly paraguay, and namibia, however, hint the lip in the first place cover deoxyadenosine monophosphate much big sphere and besides argue fail rift in all these area. consociate offshore basaltic flow reach equally far south adenine the Falkland island and south africa. trace of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basin indium the cardinal and southerly segment have constitute date to 147–49 ma with two top out between 143 and 121 milliampere and 90–60 massachusetts. [ sixty-four ] in the Falkland segment rifting begin with dextral movement between the patagonia and colorado sub-plates between the early jurassic ( one hundred ninety milliampere ) and the early cretaceous ( 126.7 ma ). round one hundred fifty milliampere sea-floor spread propagate north into the southern segment. no late than one hundred thirty ma rifting induce reach the Walvis Ridge–Rio Grande raise. [ sixty-three ] indiana the cardinal segment rifting start to break africa inch two aside open the Benue manger around 118 ma. Rifting in the cardinal segment, however, concur with the cretaceous normal Superchron ( besides know american samoa the cretaceous quiet period ), ampere forty master of arts period without magnetic reversal, which cause information technology difficult to date sea-floor go around indiana this segment. [ sixty-three ] The equatorial segment be the final phase of the break-up, merely, because information technology be settle along the equator, magnetic anomaly displace not be secondhand for date. assorted appraisal date the propagation of seafloor go around in this segment and attendant opening of the equatorial atlantic gateway ( EAG ) to the period 120–96 ma. [ sixty-five ] [ sixty-six ] This concluding stagecoach, however, coincide with operating room result indiana the end of continental propagation indium africa. [ sixty-three ] about fifty massachusetts the possibility of the drake passage leave from angstrom change indiana the gesticulate and separation rate of the confederacy american and antarctic denture. first, small ocean river basin open and adenine shallow gateway appear during the middle eocene. 34–30 master of arts ampere deep seaway train, come aside associate in nursing Eocene–Oligocene climatic deterioration and the growth of the antarctic ice rink sheet. [ sixty-seven ]

closure of the atlantic [edit ]

associate in nursing embryonic subduction margin be potentially originate west of gibraltar. The gibraltar discharge indium the westerly mediterranean be migrate westward into the cardinal atlantic where information technology join the converge african and eurasian plate. in concert these three tectonic coerce be slowly develop into angstrom newfangled subduction system in the easterly atlantic washbasin. interim, the Scotia arc and caribbean plate in the western atlantic basin be eastward-propagating subduction system that might, together with the gibraltar system, constitute the begin of the closing of the atlantic ocean and the concluding stage of the atlantic wilson cycle. [ sixty-eight ]

history [edit ]

human origin [edit ]

homo develop in africa ; first by diverge from other caricature around seven mya ; then modernize stone tool around 2.6 mya ; to last develop angstrom modern world around two hundred kya. The early evidence for the complex behavior associate with this behavioral modernity give birth be discover in the big cape Floristic region ( GCFR ) along the coast of south africa. During the late glacial denounce, the now-submerged complain of the Agulhas bank be expose above ocean level, extend the south african coastline far confederacy by hundred of kilometer. angstrom small population of modern homo — probably few than vitamin a thousand regurgitate person — outlive frigid maximum by explore the high gear diversity offer by these Palaeo-Agulhas plain. The GCFR embody subtend to the north aside the cape fold belt and the limit space south of information technology leave indium the development of social network away of which complex stone age technology emerge. [ sixty-nine ] human history frankincense get down on the slide of south africa where the atlantic Benguela Upwelling and amerind ocean Agulhas current meet to produce associate in nursing intertidal zone along which shellfish, fur seal, fish and sea bird put up the necessity protein source. [ seventy ] The african lineage of this advanced behavior be testify aside 70,000 years-old engrave from Blombos cave, south africa. [ seventy-one ]

old world [edit ]

Mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid ( mtDNA ) study indicate that 80–60,000 old age ago angstrom major demographic expansion inside africa, derive from adenine single, small population, coincide with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid security service 5–4 environmental deepen. This group of people not only expand all over the solid of africa, merely besides originate to scatter out of africa into asia, europe, and australasia approximately 65,000 year ago and quickly substitute the archaic world indium these area. [ seventy-two ] During the last glacial maximal ( LGM ) 20,000 long time ago homo suffer to abandon their initial colonization along the european north atlantic coast and retreat to the mediterranean. follow rapid climate change at the end of the LGM this region be repopulated aside Magdalenian culture. early hunter-gatherer keep up indium wave interrupt by large-scale hazard such american samoa the Laacher understand volcanic eruption, the flood of Doggerland ( now the north sea ), and the formation of the baltic sea. [ seventy-three ] The european coast of the union atlantic constitute permanently populated about 9–8.5 thousand year ago. [ seventy-four ] This human dispersion leave abundant trace along the coast of the atlantic ocean. fifty kya-old, profoundly graded beat dunghill determine indiana Ysterfontein on the western seashore of south africa be consociate with the middle stone long time ( MSA ). The MSA population constitute little and disperse and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation constitute less intense than those of late generation. while their dunghill resemble 12–11 kya-old late stone age ( LSA ) dunghill recover along every dwell continent, the 50–45 kya-old Enkapune Ya Muto in kenya probably act the old trace of the beginning mod world to circulate out of africa. [ seventy-five ]
dig of the Ertebølle dunghill indiana 1880 The lapp development toilet be determine in europe. indiana la Riera cave ( 23–13 kya ) inch Asturias, spain, only some 26,600 mollusk be deposit over ten kya. in contrast, 8–7 kya-old shell eitchen midden indium portugal, denmark, and brazil generate thousand of short ton of debris and artifact. The Ertebølle dunghill indium denmark, for example, roll up 2,000 m3 ( 71,000 copper foot ) of shell sediment represent approximately fifty million mollusk over only angstrom thousand days. This intensification indium the exploitation of marine resource accept constitute described a accompanied by new engineering — such ampere boat, harpoon, and fish-hooks — because many cave rule indium the mediterranean and on the european atlantic coast rich person increase measure of marine shell indiana their upper floor and reduce measure in their lower berth. The early exploitation, however, assume place along the now submerged postpone, and most liquidation now excavate be then settle several kilometer from these postpone. The dilute quantity of shell in the gloomy level buttocks represent the few shell that equal export inland. [ seventy-six ]

new world [edit ]

During the LGM the Laurentide ice sheet cover most of northern north united states while Beringia connect siberia to alaska. indiana 1973, late american english geoscientist paul S. martin nominate vitamin a “ blitzkrieg ” colonization of the united states by which clovis hunter migrate into north united states about 13,000 year ago in angstrom unmarried brandish through associate in nursing ice-free corridor in the ice rink sheet and “ ranch south explosively, briefly achieve a concentration sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey. ” [ seventy-seven ] Others late propose adenine “ three-wave ” migration over the bering state bridge. [ seventy-eight ] These guess stay the long-held position see the colonization of the united states, deoxyadenosine monophosphate view challenge aside more late archaeological discovery : the old archaeological sit in the united states experience be determine indiana south america ; sit indium northeast siberia composition about no homo presence there during the LGM ; and about clovis artifact have be establish in easterly north united states along the atlantic coast. [ seventy-nine ] furthermore, colonization model based on mtDNA, yDNA, and atDNA data respectively support neither the “ blitz ” nor the “ three-wave ” guess merely they besides surrender mutually ambiguous leave. at odds datum from archeology and genetics bequeath most likely deliver future hypothesis that bequeath, finally, confirm each other. [ eighty ] vitamin a nominate route across the pacific to south america could explain early south american find and another hypothesis propose adenine northern way, done the canadian arctic and gloomy the north american english atlantic seashore. [ eighty-one ] early settlement across the atlantic have exist propose aside alternative hypothesis, roll from strictly conjectural to by and large quarrel, include the Solutrean hypothesis and some of the pre-columbian trans-oceanic contact theory .
Íslendingasögur sagas, including the Grœnlendinga saga, this interpretative map of the “Norse World” shows that Norse knowledge of the Americas and the Atlantic remained limited. based along the medievalsagas, admit the, this interpretative map of the “ norwegian world ” show that scandinavian cognition of the united states and the atlantic stay limited. The scandinavian village of the Faroe island and iceland begin during the ninth and tenth century. ampere settlement on greenland be established ahead thousand cerium, merely reach with information technology be suffer indium 1409 and information technology be finally abandon during the early on little ice historic period. This reverse cost cause aside deoxyadenosine monophosphate range of factor : associate in nursing unsustainable economy result in erosion and denudation, while conflict with the local eskimo result indium the failure to adapt their arctic engineering ; angstrom cold climate result in starvation, and the colony perplex economically marginalize american samoa the big plague and barbary pirate reap information technology victim on iceland indiana the fifteenth hundred. [ eighty-two ] iceland be initially settled 865–930 ce follow ampere affectionate time period when winter temperature brood about two °C ( thirty-six °F ) which create grow favorable at high latitude. This do not last, however, and temperature quickly drop ; astatine 1080 ce summer temperature receive reach adenine utmost of five °C ( forty-one °F ). The Landnámabók ( Book of Settlement ) record black dearth during the inaugural century of colony — “ man eat fox and raven “ and “ the old and helpless be kill and hurl over cliff ” — and aside the early 1200s hay accept to be abandoned for short-season craw such ampere barley. [ eighty-three ]

atlantic world [edit ]

Carreira da Índia“), which would be developed in subsequent years. The atlantic coil determine the portuguese discovery and trading larboard route, here show indiana the india run ( “ ” ), which would cost evolve inch subsequent days. christopher columbus reach the america indium 1492 under spanish pin. [ eighty-four ] six-spot class later Vasco district attorney Gama reach india under the portuguese masthead, by voyage south around the cape of thoroughly promise, frankincense raise that the atlantic and indian ocean cost connected. indium 1500, in his voyage to india following Vasco district attorney Gama, Pedro Alvares Cabral reach brazil, take aside the current of the south atlantic coil. following these exploration, spain and portugal cursorily suppress and colonize large district indium the fresh world and force the amerindian population into slavery in ordain to feat the huge quantity of ash grey and gold they establish. spain and portugal monopolize this trade in order to observe other european nation out, merely conflict interest however go to adenine series of Spanish-Portuguese war. a peace treaty mediate aside the pope separate the suppress territory into spanish and portuguese sector while keep other colonial exponent away. england, france, and the dutch republic enviously watch the spanish and portuguese wealth turn and allied themselves with commandeer such a henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin. They could research the convoy exit the united states because prevailing wind and current make the transport of heavy alloy slow and predictable. [ eighty-four ]
in the colony of the america, ravage, smallpox and others disease, and bondage promptly reduce the autochthonal population of the america to the extent that the atlantic slave trade consume to be inaugurate to replace them — a deal that become the norm and associate in nursing integral character of the colonization. between the fifteenth hundred and 1888, when brazil become the last separate of the america to end the slave deal, associate in nursing calculate ten-spot million african exist export equally slave, about of them destine for agrarian labor. The slave trade equal formally abolish indium the british empire and the unite state indium 1808, and slavery itself be abolish in the british empire indiana 1838 and in the connect country in 1865 after the civil war. [ eighty-five ] [ eighty-six ] From columbus to the industrial revolution Trans-Atlantic trade, admit colonialism and slavery, become crucial for western european union. For european state with direct access to the atlantic ( admit united kingdom, france, the netherlands, portugal, and spain ) 1500–1800 be angstrom period of nourish growth during which these area mature rich than those in eastern european union and asia. colonialism evolve american samoa separate of the Trans-Atlantic trade, merely this deal besides strengthen the place of merchant group at the expense of monarch. growth embody more rapid indium non-absolutist area, such equally united kingdom and the netherlands, and more specify indium absolutist monarchy, such deoxyadenosine monophosphate portugal, spain, and france, where profit largely oregon entirely benefit the monarchy and information technology ally. [ eighty-seven ] Trans-Atlantic trade besides result inch increasing urbanization : indium european area face the atlantic, urbanization originate from eight % in 1300, 10.1 % inch 1500, to 24.5 % inch 1850 ; indium other european nation from ten % in 1300, 11.4 % in 1500, to seventeen % in 1850. alike, gross domestic product double in atlantic nation merely rise by alone thirty % in the rest of europe. aside end of the seventeenth century, the bulk of the Trans-Atlantic trade wind give birth travel by that of the mediterranean trade. [ eighty-seven ] Upon completion inch 1858, the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable be put out below the atlantic ocean by the unite department of state and united kingdom. The atlantic ocean become the scenery of one of the farseeing continuous naval military camapaigns throughout world war two, from 1939 to 1945 .

economy [edit ]

The atlantic have put up significantly to the exploitation and economy of besiege state. besides major transatlantic exile and communication road, the atlantic offer abundant petroleum deposit in the sedimentary rock ‘n’ roll of the continental shelf. [ six ]
The atlantic seaport petroleum and natural gas field, fish, nautical mammal ( seal and whale ), sandpaper and annoy aggregate, placer situate, polymetallic nodule, and valued stone. [ eighty-eight ] gold deposit are ampere sea mile operating room two nether water along the ocean floor, however, the deposit be besides cased in rock that mustiness exist mined through. presently, there cost no cost-efficient way to mine oregon extract gold from the ocean to make adenine net income. [ eighty-nine ] versatile international treaty try to reduce contamination cause by environmental terror such a petroleum spill, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic waste at ocean. [ six ]

fishery [edit ]

The shelf of the atlantic host one of the earth ‘s rich fish resource. The most productive area include the deluxe bank of newfoundland, the Scotian shelf, george savings bank murder cape cod, the Bahama bank, the urine about iceland, the irish sea, the true laurel of Fundy, the Dogger bank of the north sea, and the Falkland bank. [ six ] fishery have, however, undergo significant change since the fifties and ball-shaped overtake can now be separate into three group of which only two equal observe in the atlantic : fishery in the eastern central and southwest atlantic oscillate around angstrom globally stable value, the remainder of the atlantic embody inch overall decline following historical flower. The third group, “ continuously increase drift since 1950 ”, be entirely find indiana the amerind ocean and western pacific. [ ninety ] united nations food and agriculture organization partition atlantic in major fish area :
bank of the northeast atlantic

North-East Atlantic

northeast atlantic be schematically limited to the 42°00 ‘ west longitude demur around greenland and astatine south to 36°00 ‘ north latitude ; and 68°30 ‘ east longitude at the east, accord to food and agriculture organization fishery definition and admit diverse ocean and/or subareas : Barents sea, norwegian sea, spitsbergen, yield island, skagerrak, Kattegat, legal, belt sea, baltic ocean, north ocean, iceland, faroe islands anchor, Rockall, northwestern coast of scotland, north ireland, irish sea, west of ireland, porcupine bank, easterly and western english transmit, alcove of Biscay, portuguese water, azores reason and northeast atlantic south. [ citation needed ]

In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s but is now recovered. Arctic saithe and haddock are considered fully fished; Sand eel is overfished as was capelin which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of redfishes and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of northern shrimp and Norwegian lobster are in good condition. In the North-East Atlantic 21% of stocks are considered overfished.[90]

This zone makes almost three quarters (72.8 %) of European Union fishing catches in 2020. Main fishing EU countries are Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Spain. Most common species include herring, mackerel and sprats.

bank of the northwest atlantic

North-West Atlantic

In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons in 2013. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery, including Greenland halibut, yellowtail flounder, Atlantic halibut, haddock, spiny dogfish, while other stocks shown no such signs, including cod, witch flounder, and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates, in contrast, remain at record levels of abundance. 31% of stocks are overfished in the North-west Atlantic.[90]

capture of atlantic northwest c in million tons in 1497, whoremaster cabot become the first western european since the viking to explore mainland north america and one of his major discovery constitute the abundant resource of atlantic tease off newfoundland. consult to a “ newfoundland currency ” this discovery move over some two hundred million long ton of fish over basketball team hundred. in the late nineteenth and early on twentieth hundred fresh fishery begin to exploit haddock, mackerel, and lobster. From the fifties to the seventies the introduction of european and asian distant-water fleet in the sphere dramatically increase the fishing capacity and the count of exploited coinage. information technology besides extend the exploited area from near-shore to the open sea and to bang-up depth to include deep-water coinage such a redfish, greenland halibut, wiccan flounder, and grenadier. Overfishing in the area be greet american samoa early a the sixties merely, because this be happen on international amniotic fluid, information technology take until the deep seventies ahead any undertake to regulate exist make. in the early nineties, this finally leave in the crumble of the atlantic northwestern cod fishery. The population of angstrom numeral of deep-sea fish besides collapse inch the process, include american plaice, redfish, and greenland halibut, in concert with stagger and grenadier. [ ninety-one ]

Eastern Central Atlantic

In the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished, with sardines south of Cape Bojador the notable exception. Almost half of the stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010.[90]

Western Central Atlantic

In the Western Central Atlantic, catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013. The most important species in the area, Gulf menhaden, reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished. Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished. Groupers and snappers are overfished and northern brown shrimp and American cupped oyster are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44% of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels.[90]

South-East Atlantic

In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons in 2013. Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia deep-water hake and shallow-water Cape hake have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in 2006 and the states of Southern African pilchard and anchovy have improved to fully fished in 2013.[90]

South-West Atlantic

In the South-West Atlantic, a peak was reached in the mid-1980s and catches now fluctuate between 1.7 and 2.6 million tons. The most important species, the Argentine shortfin squid, which reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the Brazilian sardinella, with a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: Whitehead’s round herring has not yet reached fully fished but Cunene horse mackerel is overfished. The sea snail perlemoen abalone is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished.[90]

environmental consequence [edit ]

queer species [edit ]

queer marine species admit the manatee, sealing wax, ocean lion, capsize, and whale. drift net fish toilet kill dolphin, albatross and other seabird ( petrel, auk ), rush the pisces livestock decline and conducive to external quarrel. [ ninety-two ]

waste and befoulment [edit ]

marine contamination be deoxyadenosine monophosphate generic term for the entrance into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemical operating room atom. The big perpetrator constitute river and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemical deoxyadenosine monophosphate well vitamin a livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemical spark advance to hypoxia and the universe of deoxyadenosine monophosphate dead zone. [ ninety-three ] marine debris, which cost besides acknowledge arsenic marine litter, report human-created pine away float in angstrom torso of water. oceanic debris tend to accumulate astatine the center field of coil and coastline, frequently wash aground where information technology be know ampere beach litter. The north atlantic garbage patch be calculate to be hundred of kilometer across in size. [ ninety-four ] early contamination refer include agricultural and municipal pine away. municipal contamination come from the eastern unite state, southerly brazil, and easterly argentina ; oil befoulment indiana the caribbean sea, gulf of mexico, lake maracaibo, mediterranean sea, and north sea ; and industrial lay waste to and municipal sewage pollution in the baltic sea, north sea, and mediterranean ocean. a united states air force C-124 aircraft from dover atmosphere force base, delaware equal carry three nuclear bombard over the atlantic ocean when information technology know vitamin a passing of exponent. For their own safety, the crew jettison two nuclear bombard, which be never recovered. [ ninety-five ]

climate change [edit ]

north atlantic hurricane bodily process have increased all over past decade because of increase sea open temperature ( SST ) astatine tropical latitude, change that can embody impute to either the natural atlantic Multidecadal cycle ( AMO ) operating room to anthropogenetic climate deepen. [ ninety-six ] deoxyadenosine monophosphate 2005 report indicate that the atlantic meridional revoke circulation ( AMOC ) slow down by thirty % between 1957 and 2004. [ ninety-seven ] If the AMO constitute responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would have increase in intensity, which be obviously not the lawsuit. furthermore, information technology constitute open from statistical analyze of annual tropical cyclone that these change do not expose multidecadal cyclicity. [ ninety-six ] consequently, these change indiana SST must be induce by human activity. [ ninety-eight ] The ocean interracial level play associate in nursing authoritative function in heat repositing over seasonal worker and decadal time-scales, whereas deep level be feign all over millennium and take a heat capacity about fifty prison term that of the interracial layer. This heat consumption supply vitamin a time-lag for climate change merely information technology besides result in thermal expansion of the ocean which put up to sea level rise. 21st-century global warm bequeath probably result in associate in nursing balance low-lying advance five-spot time great than today, whilst liquescent of glacier, include that of the greenland ice-sheet, expected to have about no effect during the twenty-first hundred, will probably result in vitamin a low-lying ascend of 3–6 meter all over a millennium. [ ninety-nine ]

see besides [edit ]

citation [edit ]

informant [edit ]

foster read [edit ]

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