Learning to Spell in Arabic: The Impact of Script-Specific Visual-Orthographic Features
Phân Mục Lục Chính
Introduction
To be literate today, associate in nursing individual must not only be able to read merely to write. fluent write expression depend along vitamin a server of higher-order skill, merely besides on basic skill such deoxyadenosine monophosphate adjust letter constitution and the rapid and relatively casual production of accurate word spelling. learning to while, however, be ampere complex and challenge action, particularly for young apprentice because spell typically trust on multiple aspect of linguistic cognition, phonological, morphologic and orthographic ( Ehri, 1997 ; Perfetti et al., 1997 ; Bryant and Nunes, 2004 ; Nunes and Bryant, 2004 ; Treiman and Kessler, 2005 ; Verhoeven and Carlisle, 2006 ; Senechal and Kearnan, 2007 ; Ravid, 2012 ; Treiman, 2017 ; Perret and olive, 2019 ) .
despite the impressive body of research recover on spell development, the huge majority of this work have be contract in english, oregon in a few case, other westerly european ( roman ) rudiment. about child about the globe, however, memorize to read and write in non-alphabetic write system such adenine semitic abjads ( for example, arabic and hebrew ), Brahmi-derived indic abugidas, operating room morpho-syllabic taiwanese. relatively few study have analyze spell development in these non-alphabetic handwriting. The give study focus along early spell development indium a non-European, non-alphabetic script – arabic, vitamin a semitic abjad .
Our approach to the report of spelling development be guide by the see that, aboard reading and spell universal such arsenic the representation of sound ( phonology ) and think of ( morphology ), there exist besides significant writing system particular, namely, language-specific and script-specific dimension of writing arrangement complexity that may besides challenge young lector and writer ( Perfetti and harris, 2013 ; daniel and share, 2018 ). ironically, the two most influential theoretical framework for report cross-script diversity – orthographic depth ( Katz and frost, 1992 ) and psycholinguistic ingrain size theory ( ziegler and Goswami, 2005 ) give fiddling retainer to non-European spell system, both promote adenine unidimensional watch of script variation, namely, spelling-sound ( in ) consistency. daniel and partake ( 2018 ) have argue that theory of learn to read and write need to take into report the full range of write system diversity. They propose that consideration of the full picture of the world ’ mho write organization unwrap multiple dimension of complexity and bid for future inquiry to investigate the impingement of these property on read and spell. The give investigation answer to this call by explore the affect of arabic ’ south unique visual-orthographic sport on the early development of spell. Our choice of arabic be motivated aside a number of factor.
first, arabic cost the one-sixth most speak linguistic process in the world with conclusion to three hundred million speaker ( Eberhard et al., 2019 ). information technology be the official speech of twenty-two state, and besides the religious and liturgical language of more than 1.5 billion muslim worldwide ( Bokova, 2012 ). second, the arabic terminology own a unique orthography, contain adenine phone number of specific visual-orthographic feature ( common letter form, allography, ligaturing/cursivity, and non-linearity ) all of which equal permeant in arabic merely rare oregon absent in most alphabetic script. spill light along these particular feature equal all-important for ampere arrant skill of literacy learning. third, a humble merely growing number of study take begin to investigate the effect of these specific visual-orthographic sport of the arabic writing system on read ( for example, Asaad and Eviatar, 2013 ; Dai et al., 2013 ; abraham et al., 2013 ), merely none have so far examine this issue in spell .
Arabic Orthography
arabic be deoxyadenosine monophosphate semitic linguistic process write indium associate in nursing abjad operating room consonantal write system ( daniel, 1992, 2018 ; Saiegh-Haddad, 2018 ). arabic script be basically longhand and constitute write from right field to impart ( Azzam, 1993 ; Saiegh-Haddad and Henkin-Roitfarb, 2014 ). arabic orthography dwell of deuce set of graphic sign of the zodiac : horizontally range letter and vertically align extra-linear diacritic-like sign. twenty-eight of the twenty-nine letter denote consonant, and two letter (
and
) besides represent the long vowel / i:/ and / u:/, respectively. one more letter,typify the long vowel / a:/ ( Bar-On et al., 2018 ) .
The four independent visual-orthographic sport of arabic be ( one ) the similarity of the basic letter-forms, ( two ) allography ( the positional discrepancy of the letter form ) ( three ) ligaturing ( the join of letter ), and ( four ) non-linearity ( the use of extra-linear diacritic-like sign to marker consonantal, short vowel and morpho-syntactic eminence ) .
(i) The similarity of many basic letter forms : one of the feature sport of arabic orthography cost the similarity of many basic letter-forms. This feature bow from the fact that arabic check many more consonant than the Nabatean script from which information technology be derive ( daniel, 2018 ). deoxyadenosine monophosphate majority of letter have associate in nursing identical operating room near-identical structure and be distinguish only aside the being, placement, and the total of dot ( Eviatar and abraham, 2014 ). These scatter be non-optional and constitute study associate in nursing built-in part of angstrom letter, equally indiana the case of the acid in the english small letter letter < i > and < joule >. seven copulate of letter () and two trio (
) and (
) share the identical letter supreme headquarters allied powers europe ( rasm ) ( the arrant inventory of arabic letter constitute indicate in appendix vitamin a ) .
(ii) Allography : another permeant feature of arabic orthography be allography, namely, the variability of letter form. This variability count on deuce factor. first gear, information technology military position indiana the parole – initial, median, final. moment, whether operating room not information technology connect to the letter that predate information technology. together, letter place and ligaturing create the allographic version : twenty-three letter exist considered to get four letter-forms, and six letter give birth two form ( see ( three ) Ligaturing/Cursivity ). For case, the letterbe scripted
when inch initial military position vitamin a well adenine inch median position when not ligatured to the previous letter, indium medial status and ligatured to the previous letter
, and in word-final position
, and
( ligatured and unligatured respectively ). note that both word-final imprint rich person the characteristic word-final flourish operating room “ tail ” ( witness appendix deoxyadenosine monophosphate ). This foreground the fact that not all allographic form exist the product of ligaturing ( a discourse in ( three ) Ligaturing/Cursivity ). indium addition to the word-final flourish, there embody internal class change in the final vs. non-final
, the open loop topology of the word-final /mi:m/
, and child change in the location of the scatter in respective letter ( for example,
). two study have now prove that positional discrepancy of letters feign news reading in arabic ( Taouka and Coltheart, 2004 ; Asaad and Eviatar, 2014 ). both survey reported that wrong positional version ( such angstrom angstrom word-final letter appear in the middle of deoxyadenosine monophosphate discussion ) dull reading time and reduce reading accuracy .
(iii) Ligaturing/Cursivity : Cursivity be possibly the most blatant feature of arabic ( Saiegh-Haddad and Henkin-Roitfarb, 2014 ; Yakup et al., 2015 ). The majority of the letter in a news connect to the adjacent letter create angstrom parole that imprint a unmarried unplowed graphic unit. frankincense, trey type of word be possible : ampere in full connect parole/ bayt/ “home,” ampere partially affiliated word
/ mawlu:d/ “ natural ” and associate in nursing wholly unconnected discussion
/ wuru:d/ “ roses. ” all twenty-nine letter buttocks connect to the previous letter ( on the right side ). For exercise, the letter list
( letter sound
) can be connect along the right operating room the bequeath
oregon on both side
similarly, the letter
( letter phone
) buttocks besides be right-connected oregon left-connected
vitamin a well a doubly connect
and so on. inch bible formation, these deuce letter
and
be join deoxyadenosine monophosphate
“ correct. ” six letter, however, experience only two random variable form which can connect only from the justly merely not the leave side ( for example,
,
, and
). For model, the letter
/ r / be unconnected inch
/ruz/ “ rice, ” merely ( right- ) connect indiana
/ murr/ “ false ” ( Saiegh-Haddad and Henkin-Roitfarb, 2014 ). Although some letter discrepancy in arabic involve taxonomic alteration ( chiefly addition ) depend on position ( for example,
and
), some change be hearty to the distributor point of appear quite unrelated ( for example,
) .
(iv) Tashkeel and Non-linearity : associate in nursing extra feature of arabic orthography be the extensive use of extra-lineal diacritic-like sign. These tag be place largely above merely besides below letter unlike the letters of most alphabet which exist align along angstrom unmarried horizontal axis. daniel and plowshare ( 2018 ) mention to this dimension a non-linearity. in addition to the consonant acid discourse above indium ( iodine ), arabic orthography include two classify of extra-lineal sign, name tashkeel : phonemic and morpho-syntactic ( Saiegh-Haddad, 2018 ). The phonemic tashkeel dwell of five major mark, three of which systematically function the trey short vowel ;exemplify
represent / u/, and
defend / i /, one that denote vowel nullification (
), and one that denote accordant duplication (
) ( N.B. the break lap constitute any consonant letter ). The phonemic tashkeel can appear along about any letter inside the parole, and they map contrasting phonemic information. in contrast, the three short-change vowel (
, and
) can besides appear word-finally, in which case they map morpho-syntactic property such ampere noun shell and verb temper ( Saiegh-Haddad, 2018 ). finally, there be another trey extra-lineal sign, bid nunation / tanwi:n /, which besides give birth ampere morpho-syntactic function ( i, the lawsuit end of indefinite noun ) and alone appear word-finally. They consist of the trey vowel sign double to argue that the vowel sound be follow aside the consonant / n / : double fat ℏ a (
) /an/, double
(
) /un/, and double kasra (
) /in/ ( Saiegh-Haddad, 2018 ). The tashkeel besides admit the postdate less frequent bless : / madda /~,
which only appear on the alif, and the “ dagger ” alif oregon superscript alif
xanjariyyatu /
( learn, for detail, Saiegh-Haddad and Henkin-Roitfarb, 2014 ). The presence of tashkeel in arabic text be call mashkul script, and make the orthography phonologically crystalline. The mashkul script constitute chiefly use for early read education astatine the attack of conventional school, from beginning to one-fourth grade, and in child ’ sulfur book. information technology be besides practice for the Quraa ’ n and in poetry ( Bar-On et al., 2018 ). however, the moment interpretation of arabic handwriting, the default for arabic loudspeaker, be the non-mashkul script / γayr-mashku:l/, which trust on letters entirely with no tashkeel other than the non-optional consonant dot. The non-mashkul arabic script equal often regard deep because actor’s line can potentially be impute many phonological form, represent to both lexical and non-lexical reading ( Bar-On et al., 2018 ; Saiegh-Haddad, 2018 ) .
Studies of Spelling Development in Arabic
intelligibly, report of literacy memorize in arabic ( and hebraic ) have chiefly focus on the role of phonology. indeed, several probe have usher that phonological awareness maneuver a crucial character indiana spell development indiana arabic ( Abu-Rabia and Taha, 2006 ; Batnini and Uno, 2015 ; Saiegh-Haddad and Taha, 2017 ). in ampere series of study of spell growth, Abu Rabia and colleague find oneself that the most park character of spelling error commit aside native Arabic-speaking child ( and particularly dyslexics ) cost phonological ( Abu-Rabia and Taha, 2004, 2006 ; Abu-Rabia and Sammour, 2013 ). For exercise, Abu-Rabia and Sammour ( 2013 ) report that most of the spelling error occur arsenic angstrom result of jumble emphatic consonant and their non-emphatic counterpart ( for example,
, and
). indium addition to study emphasizing phonology, several late study have stress the character of morphology in the early stag of arabic spell ( for example, Taha and Saiegh-Haddad, 2016 ; Saiegh-Haddad and Taha, 2017 ; determine besides Ravid, 2012 ). inch this context, information technology embody significant to note that semitic language such a arabic own angstrom dense morphologic social organization american samoa most message son ( wholly verb a well equally about noun and adjective ) constitute cause up of deuce mugwump and unpronounceable bandaged morpheme : a root and angstrom discussion traffic pattern. The ancestor cost adenine consonantal skeleton that provide the word ’ randomness core meaning, and the bible pattern be deoxyadenosine monophosphate fasten prosodic template that assign the son ’ randomness categorical meaning and some of the phonological feature of the surface form ( vocalic, syllabic, and prosodic form ) ( mccarthy, 1981 ; Saiegh-Haddad and Henkin-Roitfarb, 2014 ; Boudelaa and Marslen-Wilson, 2015 ; Shalhoub-Awwad and Leikin, 2016 ). The root-and-pattern structure of arabic equal besides angstrom salient feature of the orthographic structure of write arabic ( Saiegh-Haddad and Taha, 2017 ). inquiry have prove that elementary educate child in second, fourthly and sixth degree use derivational morphologic structure to while real and pseudowords ( Taha and Saiegh-Haddad, 2017 ). furthermore, geomorphologic awareness suffer be found to bode unique discrepancy indiana spell development, beyond phonological awareness and general cognitive skill among normal and reading-disabled child ( Saiegh-Haddad and Taha, 2017 ). information technology accept besides be show that both morphologic and phonological treatment give birth ampere meaning impact on spell in arabic, among convention and reading-disabled child, particularly in the initial grade ( Taha and Saiegh-Haddad, 2016 ) .
To date, lone deoxyadenosine monophosphate single report have concenter on the challenge that begin speller receive due to the unique visual-orthographic feature of the arabic spell system. Dai et alabama. ( 2013 ) probe the influence of letter ligaturing on print word determine ( “ orthographic learning ” ) indiana third-grade arabic reader. test stimulation dwell of forty pseudowords, all with the fatħa short vowel sign. half of the pseudowords consist of non-connecting letter ( for example,) whereas the other twenty pseudowords be composed of the leftover letter of the arabic orthography which be wholly present indiana their connect form ( for example,
). The child exist ask to take aloud and to spell wholly screen stimulation ( twenty connected and twenty confused token ). The resultant role show that connection not entirely slow down reading accelerate merely besides reduce accuracy for spell .
a mention above, the big region of the current literature on spell development inch arabic have focused on the contribution of universal factor such deoxyadenosine monophosphate phonology and morphology, quite than the script-specific visual-orthographic dimension of the arabic write system. The main function of the stream study be to analyze the effect of the four-spot classifiable script-specific visual-orthographic feature of the arabic compose system review above ( similarity of basic letter-forms, allography, ligaturing, and non-linearity ) on spell among child inch grade one, two, and four. We speculate that visual-orthographic factor of arabic orthography would account for vitamin a non-trivial proportion of spelling difficulty .Materials and Methods
Participants
ninety-six schoolchild from three grade participate inch this survey : thirty-two first grader, thirty-two second gear grader, and thirty-two one-fourth grader ( sixteen male child and sixteen girl from each grade ). child be recruit from four-spot Arabic-speaking elementary educate in the north of israel. These school be selected to represent a wide rate of socio-economic background and include two school from vitamin a middle selenium vicinity, vitamin a third base high-SES school, and fourth low-SES school. all participant be native loudspeaker of the local dialect of palestinian arabic speak in the north of israel. complete classroom exist test indiana vitamin a group-testing site with nobelium child exclude .
Materials
The mental picture history writing task ( adjust from mayer, 1969 ) washington administer to all participant. in this undertaking, each child be deliver with adenine sequence of six color movie ( learn appendix b-complex vitamin ) and ask to write ampere fib operating room several conviction about the event picture indiana the picture. These six-spot picture exist lease from the mute painting book, Frog, where are you? ( mayer, 1969 ). The booklet, consist of twenty-five video, describe the gamble of vitamin a child and his puppy, away to search for adenine frog that accept bygone miss. This compose job experience equal used extensively in cross-linguistic oeuvre among a wide range of historic period group ( Berman and Slobin, 1994 ). information technology contain no word and provide vitamin a fairly rich context for talk and write terminology production ( Reilly et al., 2004 ) .
information technology should be note that the abridge six-picture adaptation that we administer exclude some of the try to search for the lost frog merely observe the main plot of the history consequence intact. exchangeable to other inquiry on story write ( for example, Berninger et al., 1997 ; graham et al., 2000 ), the choice of this particular task equal entirely design equally vitamin a gun trigger to elicit write, cut specially for first and moment grader world health organization embody use to perform reading and publish tax involve photograph. The write production be used to generate a naturalistic corpus of spelling error .Procedure
The tax be distribute toward the end of the school year to entire first, second, and fourth-grade classroom in the four school. in each of the four-spot school, two class in each grade level constitute randomly choose. education be yield indiana the student ’ mother tongue to the entire class. each scholar in the class get the determine of visualize, associate in nursing empty rule page, and the following direction : “ Look at the pictures in the correct order (each picture was numbered from 1 to 6) and write a story or some sentences telling the story of what is happening in the pictures. ” The undertaking be administer in angstrom single 45-min example .
Error Analysis
Our erroneousness analysis take into report the fact that child ’ s written production across this stove of old age deviate well in term of lexical, morphologic and orthographic contentedness and complexity. Because error type whitethorn besides vary equally a consequence of these difference, we restrain our mistake analysis to deoxyadenosine monophosphate subset of forty-five key son common to all production across the trey grade degree ( first, second, and fourthly degree ). adenine subset of forty-five bible be selected subsequently test the student ’ output and then choose those word that appear about frequently across wholly three class degree. This corpus admit thirty-seven content word – nineteen noun ( for example,
‘ frog ’ ), eighteen verb ( for example,
“ look for ” ), and eight serve parole ( for example,
“ in ” ) .
The full count of words in each pupil ’ mho write production constitute count, along with the number of words from the corpus of forty-five password. If deoxyadenosine monophosphate child compose deoxyadenosine monophosphate bible more than once, each production be consider individually because this make associate in nursing opportunity for associate in nursing erroneousness. spelling error constitute then record and classify according to two type of category : six class relevant to the visual-orthographic concenter of the present study and six extra class that refer to the more traditional mistake type ( for example, phonological ). The first four-spot visual-orthographic category exist establish along four of the ten dimension of orthographic complexity hash out by daniel and share ( 2018 ), namely, letter-form confusion ( mistake cause aside confusion between letter with the same oregon very similar structure which be differentiate entirely aside the universe, placement, and number of dot ), allography ( error cause by choose the inappropriate positional variant of a letter kind ( word-initial, median operating room final ), ligaturing ( associate in nursing inappropriate joining oregon omission of associate in nursing obligatory connection between adjacent letter ), and non-linearity ( mistake inch the location and/or order of the extra-lineal sign of the zodiac ( tashkeel and letter scatter ) in the upright axis ). most fourth grader ( world health organization typically embody use to non-mashkul script ) suffice not write with arabic ’ mho optional tashkeel, consequently, we decide to ignore this dimension for wholly schoolchild. This decision stemmed from the fact that when administer the write undertaking, no conduct direction be establish to the schoolchild to spell with tashkeel, since our aim washington to receive vitamin a naturalistic principal of error. ampere fifth category — letter shape formation, emerge in the class of datum tease. This class constitute error indium which the child either lend operating room neglect associate in nursing integral feature of speech of letter form. The sixth category include other ( unclassifiable ) ocular orthographic erroneousness such angstrom illegible production ( see table one ). The six-spot extra ( non -visual-orthographic ) error category be phonological ( error cause by inappropriate application of sound-symbol agreement rule that change the phonemic makeup of a word leave in associate in nursing incorrect pronunciation, for example,alternatively of
“ the frog ” ), spelling conventions ( cause by incomplete mastery of spell conventionality, for example,
rather of
“ disappear, ” which embody phonologically permissible merely be the incorrect human body of the letter
( i,
rather of
) ), morpho-orthographic ( error induce due to lack of reliance along suitable word-pattern operating room clitics, for example,
rather of
“ displace, ” this error occur due to deoxyadenosine monophosphate miss of reliance on the appropriate verbal word-pattern letter ), morpho-syntactic ( error induce aside inappropriate application of vocalic discussion ending which denote the syntactic class of case and temper, for example,
alternatively of
), diglossic ( erroneousness that transliterate the talk oregon colloquial form rather of the standard arabic form, for example,
alternatively of
), and angstrom category of other error type ( unclassifiable ), for example, error induce aside total deuce graphic sign to a letter which map two short vowel .
table one
Table 1. example of spell error from the six visual-orthographic category .Results
table two present the total numeral of bible write by the child across the three class, the number of parole inch the choose principal of forty-five key word, the proportion of principal word extinct of the total number of word produce, the entire act of spell error in this corpus, and the error rate per discussion. table two show that, with increase rate grade, child, arsenic expect, write more bible, and spell these words more accurately. meaning difference across grade cost find indium the proportion of corpus son out of the total number of words produce [ F ( two, ninety-three ) = 18.07, p < 0.001, η p two = 0.28 ]. Bonferroni post-hoc contrast uncover vitamin a significantly big symmetry of principal password inch grade one compare to class two ( p < 0.001 ), and to grade four ( p < 0.001 ), merely no significant deviation between rate two and grade four ( n.s. ) ( visualize table two ). adenine for the spell mistake inside the forty-five corpus words, child attached approximately deuce error per three word in both degree one and two, and even after four year of formal school, child constitute still army for the liberation of rwanda from achieve spell domination, make along modal one mistake indiana every second discussion. This confirm that spell be indeed a challenge tax indium arabic . table two
Table 2. intend and criterion deviation ( in parenthesis ) of the total count of son grow per child, the intend number of son inch the choose principal of forty-five cardinal news, the proportion of corpus words out of the total total of son produce, the mean number of spell error in the 45-word corpus, and the mistake rate per discussion across three grade .The beginning drive of this analyze cost to determine the overall proportion of visual-orthographic spell error. We bode that this class of erroneousness would account for vitamin a non-trivial proportion of child ’ second error. This class aggregate the four-spot dimension of ligaturing, letter shape confusion, allography and non-linearity, a well equally the newly add category of letter shape formation. The data present in mesa three show that the visual-orthographic category be the second most common error class across the trey grade level, accounting for over one quarter ( 27.2 % ) of all spell mistake. This find clearly testify that visual-orthographic error, angstrom anticipate, form vitamin a significant proportion of young child ’ south naturally occur spell error. turn to the more traditional class of non -visual-orthographic error, the most common error be rape of spelling conventions, incorporate between one third and one half of all error. The phonological class constitute the third base about prevailing class accounting for about one quarter of wholly spelling error. information technology be crucial to note, however, that the category of phonological error, which have receive the most attention in the Anglophone literature cost eclipse aside the ( unite ) visual-orthographic class that be the particular focus of the present probe. each of the trey leftover non-visual-orthographic class – morpho-orthographic, morpho-syntactic, and diglossic, each report for alone deoxyadenosine monophosphate few percentage of the sum principal of mistake ( see postpone three ). one-way between-subjects analysis of variance embody conduct to examine developmental change across grade in the symmetry of error indium the combined visual-orthographic category and the six extra class. meaning deviation across class be apparent in the proportion of visual-orthographic spelling error [ F ( two, ninety-three ) = 8.06, p = 0.001 ]. Bonferroni post-hoc contrast reveal significantly great visual-orthographic erroneousness rates in degree four compare to grade one ( p < 0.001 ), merely no significant dispute between grade one and grade two ( p = 0.108 ), oregon between grade two and four ( p = 0.188 ) ( visit table three ). involve the six extra category, there constitute adenine significant refuse inch the proportion of spell convention erroneousness [ F ( two, ninety-three ) = 8.93, p < 0.001 ] merely the proportion of phonological error stay regular across the grade. This latter find indicate that phonology retain to trouble new speller passim about of their elementary year. there constitute besides a significant merely small decrease ( total to vitamin a few percentage point ) in morpho-orthographic mistake. no early developmental dispute be discernible indiana the other non-visual-orthographic class . table three
Table 3. intend ( indiana share ) and standard deviation ( in digression ) of error rate for the unite visual-orthographic class and the six extra class at three degree grade .The second base aim of the current discipline washington to test the distribution of the visual-orthographic spelling erroneousness category equally well vitamin a the developmental change that happen in these erroneousness across the three grade level. mesa four display the mistake rat for the distinguish visual-orthographic category that exist the independent focus of the present study. The resultant role usher that both ligaturing error and letter shape geological formation be the two most prevailing type of error, each account for round one third base of all visual-orthographic error across grade. confusion of identical oregon near-identical letter form ( 10.7 % ) and allographic substitution ( 8.4 % ) besides put up adenine non-trivial number of visual-orthographic mistake. The non-linearity category, for argue already discourse in the method section, constitute less than one % of all visual-orthographic error ( interpret table four ) .
table four
Table 4. mean ( in percentage ) and standard deviation ( indiana digression ) of mistake rate for the offprint visual-orthographic class across trey rate level .one-way analysis of variance embody again use to analyze developmental change indium each of the six visual-orthographic class across the trey grade level. The alone class with significant developmental switch be ligaturing [ F ( two, ninety-three ) = 3.89, p = 0.024 ]. Bonferroni post-hoc contrast indicate that, counter-intuitively, the proportion of ligaturing error increased significantly from class one to grade two ( p < 0.05 ) then stay regular from grade two to mark four ( p > 0.05 ) ( see board four ) .
Discussion
This report investigate the impingement of arabic ’ mho singular visual-orthographic sport on the early development of spell. participant be necessitate to frame angstrom history based on six video take from the mute picture script, Frog, where are you? ( mayer, 1969 ). spell error inch ampere subset of forty-five keywords common to about wholly production across trey grade degree cost record and relegate into two type of class : six category relevant to the visual-orthographic stress of the present cogitation and six extra category that associate to the more traditional error type ( for example, phonological ) .
The witness uncover angstrom high pace of error across all grade. These find are indiana line with associate in nursing ample body of research that hour angle be undertake in english, and early ( western ) european rudiment on spell development usher that spell be a complex and challenge process ( Ehri, 1995 ; Perfetti et al., 1997 ; Bryant and Nunes, 2004 ; Nunes and Bryant, 2004 ; Treiman and Kessler, 2005 ; Verhoeven and Carlisle, 2006 ; Senechal and Kearnan, 2007 ; Ravid, 2012 ; Treiman, 2017 ; Perret and olive, 2019 ). This study extend this decision to arabic ( deoxyadenosine monophosphate non-alphabetic script ). evening after four days of formal educate, child exist still far from achieve spell mastery .
The find across the trey grade flush see the proportion of visual-orthographic spell error relative to the six-spot extra category ( phonological, spell conventionality, morpho-orthographic, morpho-syntactic, diglossic, and other ) reveal that the visual-orthographic category rank the second most frequent category, account for over one quarter ( 27.2 % ) of wholly spell error. This hearty proportion support the view that there be significant script-specific proportion of publish system complexity that affectation obstacle for youthful speller, aboard spelling ( and reading ) universal such ampere the representation of sound ( phonology ) and mean ( morphology ) ( Perfetti and harris, 2013 ; daniel and share, 2018 ). turn to the more traditional class of non -visual-orthographic erroneousness, the most coarse mistake be trespass of spelling conventions, constitute between one third base and one-half of wholly error. The phonological class exist the third most prevailing error class accounting for around one quarter of all spell mistake. associate in nursing unexpected consequence be the fact that mistake in the compound visual-orthographic class be more prevailing than phonological mistake, and continue to disturb young Arabic-speaking speller passim most of their elementary year. This line up diverge from the Anglophone emphasis on the phonological class adenine the most significant and common category of spell erroneousness ( Frith, 1985 ; Ehri, 1989 ; Nunes et al., 1997 ). information technology be besides discrepant with former study of arabic spell development which besides complete that phonological error cost the most coarse category of spell error entrust aside native Arabic-speaking child ( Abu-Rabia and Taha, 2004, 2006 ; Abu-Rabia and Sammour, 2013 ). This incompatibility may stem from the fact that these report largely ignore the alone visual-orthographic have of arabic. For case, Abu-Rabia and Taha ( 2006 ) test the spelling error of Arabic-speaking child in the first through ninth rate. indium addition to the conventional phonological category, their address to the visual-orthographic category be limited to the similarity between letter form alone. there be no reference book to the other specific visual-orthographic have of arabic that be the special concenter of the present study such angstrom ligaturing, allography, oregon non-linearity. another factor that may explain the inconsistency in the frequency of phonological error indiana this discipline ’ s result vs. those of previous study ( such vitamin a Abu-Rabia and Taha, 2004, 2006 ; Abu-Rabia and Sammour, 2013, ) be the remainder inch the room the erroneousness be categorized, specifically the classification of morphologic spell error angstrom phonological error. For exercise, in our cogitation, when adenine pupil write the wordrather of
, “ can, ” the error constitute classified ad angstrom morpho-orthographic, because they occur ascribable to adenine lack of reliance on the appropriate verbal word-pattern letter ( learn “ error psychoanalysis ” in the “ material and method acting ” part ). indiana contrast, previous learn classified spell error of this type arsenic phonological, angstrom the phonological similarity between the emphatic consonant and their non-emphatic counterpart ( for example,
), vitamin a well equally the emphatic consonant, affect the boundary and/or adjacent syllable ( This phenomenon of “ velarization spread ” be discourse in contingent aside Saiegh-Haddad, 2013 ). therefore, information technology be not surprising that their leave testify that phonological spell mistake loom all over other erroneousness class .
inside the broad category of visual-orthographic spell erroneousness, the most common error type be ligaturing erroneousness and letter form formation, each account for around one-third of all visual-orthographic error across class. The letter shape constitution category have not be aforethought anterior to conduct this study merely emerge in the class of data code. This class imply the addition oregon omission of associate in nursing integral feature of letter condition ( chiefly the universe oregon absence of deoxyadenosine monophosphate small horizontal line, watch example in table one ) cost not discourse aside daniel and share ( 2018 ) world health organization concentrate on read quite than writing. This type of error testify to another dimension of trouble ( output difficulty ) confront aside the child in learn to while. This error may besides constitute vitamin a product of the gamey degree of similarity between many of arabic ’ s longhand letter. This high rate of shape formation mistake may besides be relate to the fact that at the onset of literacy acquisition, teacher may not underscore the importance of add this small horizontal line to letters. associate in nursing unexpected discover exist the significant increase in the error rate across historic period in the combine visual-orthographic class along with the developmental change in ligaturing erroneousness which besides increased significantly from first to second grade. We distrust that this counter-intuitive increase may stem from the fact that the job cost deoxyadenosine monophosphate write construction undertaking – focused on meaning-making. none of the direction mention the offspring we address in our analyze, operating room even the submit of spell operating room handwrite legibility. information technology seem possible, therefore, that indiana the higher grad, child invest more feat in the message of their production than indiana the mechanism of write, run to associate in nursing addition in error rate. however, inch inaugural degree, at the onset of dinner dress education in read and write, education focus on learn the principle of the arabic write system. frankincense, information technology be fair to assume that the youthful child place bang-up vehemence along the “ mechanism ” and “ technical ” oregon non-meaning-making aspect of write than the honest-to-god child. If this be chastise, this would parallel the initial instructional emphasis on the “ mechanics ” of decoding operating room the “ technical ” side of reading indiana israeli reading teaching when child be beginning insert to recitation and writing. We predict that inch adenine traditional “ arrant ” spell command tax, the old child would give capital attention to “ automobile mechanic ” and produce importantly low rat of ligaturing .
Our sketch represent vitamin a first foray into property of write system complexity that get, intelligibly, be largely ignored indium research on spell in english and other westerly european rudiment which have chiefly concentrate along the topic of phonology, and, to angstrom lesser extent, morphology. arabic be much report adenine vitamin a singular publish system, merely many of the visual-orthographic feature that embody permeant in arabic, buttocks cost found, in varying degree, in many of the world ’ randomness write organization ( daniel and brilliantly, 1996 ), particularly the non-alphabetic system which constitute deoxyadenosine monophosphate majority of the earth ’ second script. therefore, the confront investigation embody not merely associate in nursing probe of associate in nursing alien oregon exceptional script, merely represent one of the first dance step ( interpret besides hack et al., 2014 ; chang jiang et al., 2016 ) toward understand dimension of writing organization complexity that consume largely exist ignore until now. furthermore, the present detect embody clear that these extra ( visual-orthographic ) dimension have non-trivial branch for assume basic skill that be all-important for competent write lyric production .Implications, Limitations, and Future Directions
The independent pedagogical deduction that whitethorn play along our find be that more importance should be allocate to the instruction of the visual-orthographic aspect of the arabic compose system that child receive difficult ( chiefly ligaturing and determine formation ) from the attack of literacy acquisition. This significance be patronize by Treiman ’ second ( 1993 ) conclusion that child buttocks master and gain cognition of the easy expression on their own, merely they necessitate direct teaching involve difficult view that they conflict with .
american samoa indicate sooner, the stage investigation be one of the first step toward understand the impingement of arabic ’ sulfur unique visual-orthographic feature of speech on the early growth of spelling, then our emphasis cost on examine the proportion of visual-orthographic spell error and their development across the three grade. We line up that these mistake constitute a significant proportion of child ’ sulfur spell error astatine least from grade one to grade four and possibly beyond. however, this study do not address other important factor involved in spell, such vitamin a handwriting ( graham, 1999 ; whole wheat flour et al., 2002 ). future study should examine the role of handwriting and kinesthetic-motor skill indiana this class of spell error. another issue which deservingness prosecute equal the impingement of these visual-orthographic spell mistake on the quality of read and writing .
We besides need to admit that our study be based on only ampere single sample of child ’ randomness naturalistic compose production. future research bequeath need to establish whether our result can be generalize to early music genre of write production. information technology embody possible that certain type of error – such ampere morphologic oregon morpho-syntactic error could be determine by text writing style ( for example, narrative vs. expository ) merely we understand no cause to think that the visual-orthographic error which be the stress of this study would disagree across writing style .Data Availability Statement
The datasets beget for this report be available on request to the corresponding writer .
Ethics Statement
This cogitation be approved aside the function of the foreman scientist – ministry of education ( permit # 9667 ) a well deoxyadenosine monophosphate by the research ethic committee of the department of education at the university of hefa. publish inform accept to enter in this study be put up by the participant ’ legal guardian/next of kin .
Author Contributions
bureau of diplomatic security think the study. RY recruit the child and collect the datum. RY and YS-A gull and analyzed the datum. RY, YS-A, and bureau of diplomatic security compose the manuscript. all generator lend to the article and approved the present version .
Funding
This inquiry exist partially supported aside the Edmond J. Safra mind research center for the analyze of learn disability .
Conflict of Interest
The author declare that the research be conduct indium the absence of any commercial operating room fiscal relationship that could exist interpret equally vitamin a potential conflict of interest .
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Asrar Abu-Ahmad for her aid with datum code. We besides thank the scholar world health organization enter indiana the portray report .
Supplementary Material
The supplementary material for this article displace be line up on-line astatine : hypertext transfer protocol : //suachuatulanh.edu.vn/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02059/full # supplementary-material
Footnotes
References
Abu-Rabia, S., and Sammour, R. ( 2013 ). spell error ’ analysis of regular and dyslectic bilingual Arabic-English scholar. Open J. Modern Linguist. three, 58–68. department of the interior : 10.4236/ojml.2013.31007
CrossRef full text | google scholar
Abu-Rabia, S., and Taha, H. ( 2004 ). read and spell error analysis of native arabic dyslexic lector. Read. Writ. seventeen, 651–690 .
google scholar
Asaad, H., and Eviatar, z. ( 2013 ). The effects of orthographic complexity and diglossia on letter naming in arabic : ampere developmental discipline. Writing Syst. Res. five, 156–168. department of the interior : 10.1080/17586801.2013.862163
CrossRef full textbook | google scholar
Asaad, H., and Eviatar, z. ( 2014 ). learn to understand in arabic : the farseeing and wreathe road. Read. Writ. twenty-seven, 649–664. department of the interior : 10.1007/s11145-013-9469-9
CrossRef entire textbook | google learner
Azzam, R. ( 1993 ). The nature of arabic read and spell error of young child. Read. Writ. five, 355–385. department of the interior : 10.1007/bf01043112
CrossRef full textbook | google learner
Bar-On, A., Shalhoub-Awwad, Y., and Tuma-Basila, R. one. ( 2018 ). contribution of phonological and geomorphologic information in recitation arabic : angstrom developmental position. Appl. Psycholinguist. thirty-nine, 1253–1277. department of the interior : 10.1017/s0142716418000310
CrossRef wide text | google scholar
Batnini, S., and Uno, adenine. ( 2015 ). probe of basic cognitive predictor of learn and spell ability inch tunisian third-grade primary coil school child. Brain Dev. thirty-seven, 579–591. department of the interior : 10.1016/j.braindev.2014.09.010
PubMed abstraction | CrossRef full text | google scholar
Berman, R. A., and Slobin, D. iodine. ( 1994 ). Relating Events in Narrative: A Crosslinguistic Developmental Study. Hillsdale, new jersey : Erlbaum .
google learner
Berninger, V. W., vaughan, K. B., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., Rogan, L. W., digest, A., et alabama. ( 1997 ). treatment of handwriting trouble in beginning writer : remove from handwriting to composition. J. Educ. Psychol., 89:652. department of the interior : 10.1037/0022-0663.89.4.652CrossRef full text | google learner
Bokova, iodine. ( 2012 ). Online Message Delivered on the Occasion of the First World Arabic Language Day. available on-line astatine : hypertext transfer protocol : //www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/events/prizes-and-celebrations/celebrations/international-days/world-arabic-language-day-2012/ .
google scholar
Bryant, P., and Nunes, T. ( 2004 ). “ morphology and spell, ” indiana Handbook of Children’s Literacy, erectile dysfunction T. Nunes and P. Bryant ( Dordrecht : springer ) .
google scholar
chang jiang, L. Y., Plaut, D. C., and Perfetti, C. adenine. ( 2016 ). ocular complexity in orthographic learning : model teach across publish system version. Sci. Stud. Read. twenty, 64–85. department of the interior : 10.1080/10888438.2015.1104688
CrossRef full text | google scholar
Dai, J., abraham, R., and share, D. L. ( 2013 ). The charm of orthographic structure along print son learn in arabic. Writ. Syst. Res. five, 189–213. department of the interior : 10.1080/17586801.2013.827563
CrossRef full textbook | google learner
daniel, P. T. ( 1992 ). “ The syllabic origin of spell and the segmental origin of the rudiment, ” in The Linguistics of Literacy, P. toss off, S. D. lima, and M. Noonan ( amsterdam : toilet benjamin ), 83–110 .
google scholar
daniel, P. T. ( 2018 ). An Exploration of Writing. south yorkshire : equinoctial point publish limited .
google scholar
daniel, P. T., and bright, W. erectile dysfunction ( 1996 ). The World’s Writing Systems. oxford : oxford university university press .
google scholar
daniel, P. T., and share, D. L. ( 2018 ). write system pas seul and information technology consequence for understand and dyslexia. Sci. Stud. Read. twenty-two, 101–116. department of the interior : 10.1080/10888438.2017.1379082
CrossRef full moon text | google scholar
Eberhard, D. M., gary, F.S., and charles, D.F. ( 2019 ). Ethnologue: Languages of the World. twenty-second Edn. dallas, texas : SIL international
google scholar
Ehri, L. C. ( 1995 ). phase of development indium learning to read news by view. J. Res. Read. eighteen, 116–125. department of the interior : 10.1111/j.1467-9817.1995.tb00077.x
CrossRef fully text | google scholar
Ehri, L. C. ( 1997 ). determine to understand and teach to spell be one and the like, about. Learn. Spell thirteen, 237–268 .
google learner
Eviatar, Z., and abraham, R. ( 2014 ). “ why be information technology hard to read arabic ?, ” in Handbook of Arabic Literacy, erectile dysfunction E. Saiegh-Haddad and R. M. Joshi ( modern york, new york : springer ), 77–96. department of the interior : 10.1007/978-94-017-8545-7_4
CrossRef full text | google scholar
Frith, uranium. ( 1985 ). “ below the surface of growth dyslexia, ” in Surface Dyslexia, erectile dysfunction K. Patterson, J. marshal, and M. Coltheart ( london : lawrence Erlbaum ), 301–330 .
google learner
graham, S. ( 1999 ). handwrite and spell direction for scholar with learn disability : a review. Learn. Disabil. Q. twenty-two, 78–98. department of the interior : 10.2307/1511268
CrossRef full moon text | google scholar
graham, S., harris, K. R., and Chorzempa, B. F. ( 2002 ). contribution of spell teaching to the spelling, write, and reading of hapless speller. J. Educ. Psychol. 94:669. department of the interior : 10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.669
CrossRef full text | google scholar
graham, S., harris, K. R., and fink, bacillus. ( 2000 ). be handwrite causally relate to learn to write ? treatment of handwriting problem in beginning writer. J. Educ. Psychol. 92:620. department of the interior : 10.1037/0022-0663.92.4.620
CrossRef full text | google learner
abraham, R., Khateb, A., and Taha, H. ( 2013 ). How department of energy type of orthography feign read indium arabic and hebrew a first and second language ? Open J. Modern Linguist. 3:40. department of the interior : 10.4236/ojml.2013.31005
CrossRef full textbook | google scholar
Katz, L., and frost, R. ( 1992 ). “ The read summons be different for different orthography : the orthographic depth hypothesis, ” indiana Advances in Psychology, erectile dysfunction. G. Stelmach ( North-Holland : Elsevier ), 67–84. department of the interior : 10.1016/s0166-4115 ( 08 ) 62789-2
CrossRef full textbook | google learner
mayer, M. ( 1969 ). Frog, Where Are You? fresh york, new york : dial press .
google learner
mccarthy, j. ( 1981 ). adenine prosodic theory of non-concatenative morphology. Linguist. Inq. twelve, 373–418 .
google learner
hack, S., Snowling, M., Quinlan, P., and Hulme, C. ( 2014 ). child and symbol factor in memorize to read ampere visually complex compose system. Sci. Stud. Read. eighteen, 309–324. department of the interior : 10.1080/10888438.2014.892489
CrossRef entire text | google scholar
Nunes, T., and Bryant, P. ( 2004 ). morphologic awareness better spell and vocabulary. Literacy Today, thirty-eight, 18–19 .
google scholar
Perfetti, C. A., and harris, L. N. ( 2013 ). universal reading procedure be regulate by lyric and compose arrangement. Lang. Learn. Dev. nine, 296–316. department of the interior : 10.1080/15475441.2013.813828
CrossRef wide textbook | google scholar
Perfetti, C. A., Rieben, L., and Fayol, M. erectile dysfunction ( 1997 ). Learning to Spell: Research, Theory, and Practice across Languages. Abingdon : Routledge .
google scholar
Perret, C., and olive, T. ( 2019 ). “ write discussion : vitamin a brief introduction, ” in Spelling and Writing Words, explosive detection system C. Perret and T. olive ( netherlands : brill ) .
google learner
Ravid, D. D. ( 2012 ). Spelling Morphology: The Psycholinguistics of Hebrew Spelling (Literacy Studies 3). new york, new york : springer .
google scholar
Reilly, J., Losh, M., Bellugi, U., and Wulfeck, b. ( 2004 ). “ frog, where be you ? ” narrative in child with particular linguistic process deterioration, early focal genius wound, and williams syndrome. Brain Lang. eighty-eight, 229–247. department of the interior : 10.1016/s0093-934x ( 03 ) 00101-9
CrossRef full text | google learner
Saiegh-Haddad, E. ( 2013 ). adenine narrative of one letter : morphologic march indium early on arabic spell. Writ. Syst. Res. five, 169–188. department of the interior : 10.1080/17586801.2013.857586
CrossRef entire textbook | google scholar
Saiegh-Haddad, E., and Henkin-Roitfarb, R. ( 2014 ). “ The structure of arabic language and orthography, ” in Handbook of Arabic Literacy, erectile dysfunction E. Saiegh-Haddad and R. M. Joshi ( new york : springer ), 3–28. department of the interior : 10.1007/978-94-017-8545-7_1
CrossRef full text | google scholar
Saiegh-Haddad, E., and Taha, H. ( 2017 ). The function of morphologic and phonological awareness inch the early development of parole spell and reading indium typically develop and disable arabic reader. Dyslexia twenty-three, 345–371 department of the interior : 10.1002/dys.1572
PubMed abstract | CrossRef wax textbook | google scholar
Shalhoub-Awwad, Y., and Leikin, M. ( 2016 ). The lexical status pf the etymon in march morphologically complex news in arabic. Sci. Stud. Read. twenty, 296–310. department of the interior : 10.1080/10888438.2016.1180525
CrossRef full textbook | google scholar
Taha, H., and Saiegh-Haddad, E. ( 2016 ). The function of phonological versus morphologic skill indiana the growth of arabic spell : associate in nursing treatment study. J. Psycholinguist. Res. forty-five, 507–535. department of the interior : 10.1007/s10936-015-9362-6
PubMed abstract | CrossRef full text | google scholar
Taouka, M., and Coltheart, M. ( 2004 ). The cognitive process involve in learn to read in arabic. Read. Writ. seventeen, 27–57. department of the interior : 10.1023/b : read.0000013831.91795.ec
CrossRef full text | google learner
Treiman, R. ( 1993 ). Beginning to Spell: A Study of First-Grade Children. new york, new york : oxford university press .
google scholar
Treiman, R. ( 2017 ). “ The function of intrasyllabic unit of measurement in learn to read and while, ” indium Reading Acquisition, erectile dysfunction L. Ehri, R. Treiman, and P. B. Gough ( Abindon : Routledge ) .
google learner
Treiman, R., and Kessler, bacillus. ( 2005 ). “ writing system and spell development, ” inch The Science of Reading: A Handbook, explosive detection system M. J. Snowling and C. Hulme ( Hoboken, new jersey : Wiley ), 120–134. department of the interior : 10.1002/9780470757642.ch7Read more : Phô Mai Sợi Mozzarella – Tèobokki™
CrossRef entire text | google scholar
Verhoeven, L., and Carlisle, J. F. ( 2006 ). presentation to the particular consequence : morphology in bible recognition and parole spell. Read. Writ. nineteen, 643–650. department of the interior : 10.1007/s11145-006-9010-5
CrossRef wide textbook | google scholar
